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European Urology

Volume 55, issue 1, pages 1-260, January 2009

Reviews

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Recommendations on the Use of Botulinum Toxin in the Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Disorders and Pelvic Floor Dysfunctions: A European Consensus Report

Apostolos Apostolidis a lowast , Prokar Dasgupta b, Pierre Denys c, Sohier Elneil d, Clare J. Fowler e, Antonella Giannantoni f, Gilles Karsenty g, Heinrich Schulte-Baukloh h, Brigitte Schurch i, Jean-Jacques Wyndaele j.

Accepted 8 September 2008, Published online 17 September 2008, pages 100 - 120

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Abstract

Context

The increasing body of evidence and number of potential indications for the use of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) in the lower urinary tract (LUT) underlines the pressing need for evidence-based guidelines.

Objective

A European expert panel consensus conference was convened with the main aim of evaluating the evidence and clinical considerations for the use of BoNTs in the treatment of urologic and pelvic-floor disorders and to propose relevant recommendations.

Evidence acquisition

The quality of evidence from fully published English-language literature in the PubMed and EMBASE databases was assessed using the European Association of Urology (EAU) levels of evidence (LoE). Recommendations were graded and approved by a unanimous consensus of the panel.

Evidence synthesis

The use of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) is recommended in the treatment of intractable symptoms of neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO) or idiopathic detrusor overactivity (IDO) in adults (grade A). Caution is recommended in IDO because the risk of voiding difficulty and duration of effect have not yet been accurately evaluated. Repeated treatment can be recommended in NDO (grade B). The depth and location for bladder injections should be within the detrusor muscle outside the trigone (grade C). Dosage in children should be determined by body weight, with caution regarding total dose if also being used for treatment of spasticity, and minimum age (grade B). Existing evidence is inconclusive for recommendations in neurogenic detrusor–sphincter dyssynergia, bladder pain syndrome, prostate diseases, and pelvic-floor disorders. The use of BoNTA in the LUT with the current dosages and techniques is considered to be safe overall (grade A).

Conclusions

The consensus committee recommends larger placebo-controlled and comparative trials to evaluate the efficacy of single and repeat injections, the duration of effect, the optimal dosage and injection technique, the timing for repeat injection, and the short- and long-term safety of the treatment in LUT and pelvic-floor disorders.

Take Home Message

A European panel of experts met in a closed consensus conference, evaluated the evidence for and clinical considerations in the use of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) in treating urological and pelvic-floor disorders, and proposed recommendations for the use of BoNTs in the clinical areas of interest.

Keywords: Botulinum toxin, Bladder, Urethra, Children, Prostate, Pelvic floor, Mechanism of action.

Article Outline

1. Introduction

The use of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) in the lower urinary tract (LUT) was pioneered as early as 20 yr ago with injections into the urethral sphincter [1] reducing bladder-voiding pressures, urethral pressures, and postvoid residual (PVR) urine. Over the past 10 yr, the use of botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) has revolutionised the treatment of intractable symptoms associated with the overactive bladder (OAB) [2]. The use of BoNTA has also expanded into pelvic pain syndromes, including the bladder pain syndrome (BPS) [3], as well as into benign prostatic diseases [4]. The body of clinical evidence to support such interventions is rapidly growing, and preclinical and translational studies confirm its potential as a treatment modality. BoNTA, however, remains an unlicensed treatment in LUT and pelvic-floor disorders. The increasing number of potential indications together with a wide variation of injected doses, injection techniques, treatment, and follow-up protocols underline the pressing need for evidence-based guidelines. For that purpose, a European expert panel consensus conference was convened with the aims of (1) evaluating the evidence for and clinical considerations in the use of BoNTs in treating LUT and pelvic floor disorders, (2) considering possible roles for future research of BoNTs in treating other urologic conditions, and (3) proposing recommendations for the use of BoNTs in the clinical areas of interest. Such attempts have previously been made at a national level or they only addressed a specific application, usually the neurogenic bladder [5], [6], and [7].

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2. Evidence acquisition

A consensus panel of the European researchers with a high volume of key publications on the use of BoNTs in urologic and pelvic-floor disorders was convened in January 2008 in Thessaloniki, Greece.

A systematic review of the PubMed and EMBASE databases for fully published English-language literature was performed by the working panel. In PubMed the search was convened using the medical subject heading (MeSH) term botulinum toxin in conjunction with any of the following terms: bladder, urethra, prostate, and pelvic floor. The limitations English language and human were subsequently used. The references on botulinum toxin and bladder were further categorised using the following limitations: neurogenic, idiopathic, non-neurogenic, overactive, painful, and children. Review articles and published abstracts were identified by limiting for review and abstract, respectively. The reference list of review and original papers were reviewed to identify any missed papers. A similar search strategy was applied in EMBASE using identical EMTREE terms.

All original articles were reviewed for primary and secondary outcomes, injection protocol characteristics, and adverse events. For each clinical variable, percent changes were calculated from results reported at the time of the latest follow-up with an adequate number of patients, allowing for comparisons with baseline values. Abstracts were excluded from data extraction because they are not peer reviewed, thus their methods and results could not be evaluated. Data for each BoNT application were extracted by one author and quality controlled by another.

The consensus panel met in closed session; relevant data were presented, and the quality of evidence and strength of recommendation were graded. The levels of evidence (LoE) and recommendation grades applied were those adopted by the European Association of Urology (EAU) [8] (Table 1, and Table 2). The consensus statements were formulated using the Delphi approach (www.carolla.com/wp-delph.htm), and the final recommendations were approved by a unanimous consensus of the panel (Table 3). Final preparation and modifications of the consensus paper were made by electronic communication.

Table 1 Levels of evidence applied by the European Association of Urology

Level Type of evidence
1a Evidence obtained from meta-analysis of randomised trials
1b Evidence obtained from at least one randomised trial
2a Evidence obtained from one well-designed controlled study without randomisation
2b Evidence obtained from at least one other type of well-designed quasi-experimental study
3 Evidence obtained from well-designed nonexperimental studies, such as comparative studies, correlation studies, and case reports
4 Evidence obtained from expert committee reports or opinions or clinical experience of respected authorities

Table 2 Recommendation grades applied by the European Association of Urology

Grade Nature of recommendations
A Based on clinical studies of good quality and consistency addressing the specific recommendations and including at least one randomised trial
B Based on well-conducted clinical studies but without randomised clinical trials
C Made despite the absence of directly applicable clinical studies of good quality

Table 3 Recommendations on the use of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) in the treatment of intractable symptoms of lower urinary tract (LUT) and pelvic-floor disorders, as unanimously agreed by a European consensus panel

Recommendations on the use of BoNTs in the treatment of intractable symptoms of LUT and pelvic-floor disorders Grade
NDO
Use BoNTA to treat refractory NDO in patients willing to use CISC. A
The aim of the treatment is to improve symptoms, urodynamic risk factors for renal impairment, or quality of life in patients with spinal NDO. A
The diagnosis of NDO should follow the EAU guidelines (ie, urodynamic assessment is mandatory). A
Patients should be told the treatment does not last indefinitely but should have a mean duration of 8 mo. A
Repeated treatment has been shown to be efficacious. B

IDO/OAB
Use BoNTA to treat refractory IDO in patients willing to use CISC. A
Use caution because the risk of voiding difficulty as well as the duration of effect has not been accurately evaluated to date. Future studies should address the benefit–risk ratio for the best minimal dosage.
All patients should accept in writing the possible need to perform CISC following treatment. A
Residual volumes should be measured regularly for the first month starting at the first week. A
Patients should be told that the treatment does not last indefinitely but has a mean duration of 6 mo. A

Comparison of injection techniques
The dilution of Botox should be 10 U/ml per site; thus, the number of injection sites depends on the total dosage being administered (ie, 30 sites for a dosage of Botox 300 U in NDO). The optimum dose for dilution of Dysport has yet to be established. B
The choice of flexible or rigid cystoscope should be left to local expertise. C
The depth and location for injections should be within the detrusor muscle outside the trigone. C

Detrusor injections in children
Dose range should be determined by body weight: 5–10 U/kg body weight up to a maximum dosage of Botox 300 U has been shown to be effective and safe. Caution is recommended for the total dosage in children also treated for spasticity. B
A minimum age of 3 yr is suggested because there are little data for younger ages. C
Other recommendations follow adult NDO indications. A

BoNTA sphincter injections
There is LoE 1b for the use of BoNTA in DSD in neurogenic patients, but the clinical value of this has to be studied further before a recommendation can be made. –
If injection is done, Botox 100 U in 4 ml should be used. C
Further studies in adults with voiding dysfunction of non-neurogenic origin are needed. A
Before its use in children is recommended, the longer term clinical value needs to be assessed. –

BPS
In the absence of placebo-controlled data in the indication of BPS, it is impossible to recommend the use of BoNTA despite results from open-label studies. –
Patients should be warned of the possible need to perform CISC or of worsening pain. C

BPH associated with LUTS
Currently, there is insufficient data to recommend this promising treatment for use of BoNTA for bladder-outlet obstruction due to BPH indication. –
Further placebo-controlled studies are needed. A

Pelvic-floor disorders
Insufficient evidence exists on which to base clinical advice. –
There is a need for robust clinical trials to prove that this agent is truly efficacious in this disparate group of patients. A

Safety in urological applications
BoNT can be used in the LUT with the current dosages and techniques; the clinical results show that it is safe overall. Side-effects have been reported, mostly at a low incidence. A
Further follow-up of safety is necessary because BoNT in other applications has been shown to have histologic, autonomic, and other secondary effects. Similar studies are also needed in urologic treatment. A
Patients treated for DO should accept beforehand the possible need to perform CIC because increase of residual/retention is the most frequent complication. A

The highest grade of recommendation was given for the use of BoNTA in NDO and IDO refractory to oral pharmacotherapy in patients willing to perform CISC if needed as well as for the overall clinical safety of the treatment under the currently used dosages and techniques. No recommendations could be made for the use of BoNTs in urethral sphincter disorders, BPS, benign prostate diseases, and pelvic-floor disorders, as the available data were considered inconclusive. Large placebo-controlled and comparative trials are needed in all aspects of BoNT use in the LUT and the pelvic floor.NDO = neurogenic detrusor overactivity; BoNTA = botulinum neurotoxin type A; DO = detrusor overactivity; CISC = clean, intermittent self-catheterisation; EAU = European Association of Urology; IDO = idiopathic detrusor overactivity; OAB = overactive bladder; LoE = level of evidence; DSD = detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia; BPS = bladder pain syndrome; BPH = benign prostatic hyperplasia; LUTS = lower urinary tract symptoms; CIC = clean intermittent catheterisation.

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3. Evidence synthesis

3.1. Pharmacology

Pharmacokinetic studies with BoNTs are not feasible in humans. Animal studies have shown that after injection of BoNTA in skeletal muscles, there is slow muscular diffusion of the complex followed by rapid systemic metabolism and urine excretion (60% excreted within 24 h). The half-life occurs at approximately 10 h.

BoNTA consists of a light chain attached to a heavy chain via a disulfide bond with an associated zinc atom. It is synthesised as a single-chain polypeptide with a molecular weight of 150 kDa, which is then cleft into its active dichain polypeptide form. The heavy chain (about 100 kDa) allows for binding to the neuron and internalisation of the toxin, whereas the light chain (about 50 kDa) actively cleaves SNAP25 (synaptosomal-associated protein with a molecular weight 25 kDa) on the protein complex that is responsible for docking and releasing vesicles containing neurotransmitters [9].

3.2. Mechanism of action

The scientific background for the application of BoNTA in the external urethral sphincter in patients with neurogenic detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia (nDSD) [1] was BoNTA’s known effect of blocking the presynaptic vesicular release of acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction [9]. Despite clinical evidence from its use in neurologic disorders suggesting an effect of BoNTA on afferent abnormalities [10], weakening of striated musculature has remained an appropriate aim in the management of nDSD and pelvic-floor disorders characterised by excessive and sometimes painful muscle spasms. In neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO) as well as in patients with idiopathic detrusor overactivity (IDO), the post-treatment reductions in detrusor pressures during both phasic involuntary contractions and on voiding [11], [12], and [13] are evidence for an effect of BoNTA on the motor innervation of the detrusor, although the neurologic deficit which additionally affects voiding efficiency in the NDO group may partly explain the high rate of post-treatment clean intermittent self-catheterisations (CISC).

Patients, however, also report a rapid reduction in their sensations of urgency, which are associated with involuntary detrusor overactivity (DO) [14], and [15]. Although the exact nature and cause of urgency remains to be elucidated, aberrant afferent activity is thought to be a significant cause of spinal NDO [16], and much less is known about the role of afferents in IDO. In both neural and bladder tissue, BoNTA affected the release of numerous sensory transmitters other than ACh, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and glutamate, which may be dependent on the same mechanism of vesicle trafficking [17], and reduced the levels of sensory receptors [18] and nerve growth factor (NGF) in the bladder wall [19]. Thus, it seems highly probable that in addition to a direct effect on detrusor motor innervation, BoNTA also modulates intrinsic bladder reflexes through a multimodal effect on sensory pathways (Fig. 1) [17]. Such mechanisms may contribute to the efficiency of this treatment and partly explain how it affects abnormal detrusor contractions more markedly than voluntary bladder emptying.

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Fig. 1 Proposed mechanism of action of botulinum toxin type A (BoNTA) injected into the overactive bladder wall. It has been proposed that a complex system of interactions exists between the release of neurotransmitters and actions on respective receptors located on the urothelium and suburothelium, corresponding to pathways of bladder mechanosensation. All connections identified by arrows (see Apostolidis et al [17] for arrow identification) are thought to be upregulated in detrusor overactivity. BoNTA may exert a multimodal effect on those pathways via multiple inhibition of the vesicular release of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides by the urothelium and suburothelial nerves and reduction of the axonal expression of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment receptor (SNARE)-complex–dependent proteins that are thought to be involved in bladder mechanosensation.
Reproduced with permission from Elsevier [17].
bl = basal lamina of urothelium; mf = myofibroblast layer; det = detrusor muscle; TRPV1 = transient receptor potential vanilloid 1; P2X3 = ionotropic purinergic receptor type 3; P2Y = metabotropic purinergic receptors; M2/M3 = muscarinic acetylcholine receptors types 2 and 3; NK1 = neurokinin receptor type 1 (SP receptor); SP = substance P; NGF = nerve growth factor; ACh = acetylcholine; ATP = adenosine triphosphate.

3.3. Adult detrusor overactivity and overactive bladder

An expert panel at the 2nd International Consultation on Incontinence in 2004 designated a LoE 2 and recommendation grade B for the use of BoNTA in OAB symptoms and DO [20]. Several review articles and a Cochrane library review support the use of BoNTs in adult DO and OAB, limitations being the small number and size of existing randomised controlled trials (RCTs) [7].

3.3.1. Adult neurogenic detrusor overactivity

BoNTA decreased symptoms of intractable NDO in 2 placebo-controlled trials (LoE 1b) (1 with Botox, 1 with Dysport) [12], and [21], 1 active comparator–controlled trial (LoE 1b) [22], and 22 open-label (LoE 3) studies [2], [11], [13], [19], [23], [24], [25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], and [42]. Another RCT studied the effect of botulinum toxin type B (BoNTB, Myobloc) on refractory DO but included only three NDO patients [43]. Treatment of a total of 1018 NDO patients has been reported in fully published studies to date. The majority had spinal NDO due to spinal cord injury (SCI) or multiple sclerosis (MS). The summarised results showed that Botox 300 U was the most commonly used dosage. There is no systematic analysis yet available on the efficacy of different dosages. Despite heterogeneous designs, almost all single-injection studies showed significant improvements at the last follow-up (LoE 1b) in such outcomes as incontinence episodes (mean reduction: 69%; range: 32–100%), maximum cystometric capacity (MCC; mean increase: 85%; range: 11–303%), and maximum detrusor pressure (Pdetmax; mean decrease: 44%; range: 5–83%) (Table 4). The mean percentage of spinal NDO patients who became fully continent was 56.6% (range: 30–87%), but the rate of full return to continence was only 8% in patients with NDO due to cerebrovascular accident. Quality of life (QoL) improved independent of questionnaire used and in both placebo-controlled trials (LoE 1b) (mean improvement: 57%; range: 35–78%). After a rapid onset of effect (4 d) [40], the mean duration of efficacy in single-injection studies was 8 mo (range: 12–36 wk) (Table 4). Repeat treatments showed sustained clinical benefits in open-label studies using up to five injections of Botox or seven injections of Dysport [31], [38], [41], and [42] (LoE 3). BoNTA injections provided superior clinical and urodynamic benefits to intravesically instilled resiniferatoxin up to 18 mo after treatment [22] (LoE 1b).

Table 4 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) for treatment of intractable symptoms of neurogenic detrusor overactivity (NDO)

Study No. of patients BoNT type, dosage Continence % completely dry/% Δleak episodes MCC change, % Pdetmax mean % change vs base line QoL mean % change vs base line Duration of follow-up Duration of benefit LoE
Kalsi et al [40] 16 Botox 300 U NA/−88 (result at day 4) NA NA NA 4 wk ≥4 wk 3
Kalsi et al [39] 43 Botox 300 U NA/−77 +303 −33.5 +78 (UDI6-IIQ7) 16 wk (per injection) 9.7 mo 3
1 reinjection
Reitz et al [41] 20 Botox 300 U 85/NA +130 −83 NA 35 mo (4 reinjections) ≥28 wk (per injection) 3
Del Popolo et al [42] 199 Dysport 500 U, 750 U, 1000 U 95/−95* +80 NA +40 (VAS) 75 mo (up to 8 reinjections) 44–52 wk (per injection) 3
Ehren et al* [21] 31 Dysport 500 U NA/−48 +37.5 −69 NA 26 wk 26 wk 1b
Kalsi et al [35] 63 Botox 300 U NA/−47 +178 −22 NA ≥15 mo 10 mo 3
Giannantoni et al [27] 23 Botox 300 U 78/−68 +86 −61 NA 12 wk ≥12 wk 3
Karsenty et al [38] 17 Botox 300 U NA/−100 +43 (first) −62 (first) NA 208 wk 39 wk 3
+32 (last) −65 (last)
Schulte-Bauklohet al [33] 16 Botox 300 U NA/NA +36 −57 35 (UDI-6) 24 wk ≥12 wk 3
50 (SSI)
Kalsi et al [34] 32 Botox 300 U NA/−85 +166 −54 65 (UDI-6) 16 wk ≥16 wk 3
Ruffion et al [37] 45 Dysport 500 U 30/NA +74 −20 NA 88 wk 16–17 3
Dysport 1000 U 75/NA +82 −49 NA 88 wk 40–44
Schurch et al [12] 59 Botox 200 U 74/−32 +67 −50 61 24 wk ≥24 wk 1b
Botox 300 U 53/−58 +32 −38 56 (I-QoL)
Kuo [36] 24 Botox 200 U 8/NA (CVA +28 −27 NA 12 wk 12 wk 3
42/NA (SCI) +45 −34
Klaphajone et al [30] 10 Botox 300 U 50/NA +23 −24 NA 36 wk ≥16 wk 3
Popat et al [13] 44 Botox 300 U 55/−68 +181 −42 NA 16 wk ≥16 wk 3
Kessler et al [28] 11 Botox 300 U 73/NA +116 −40 NA 1 wk 22 wk 3
Hajebrahimi et al [32] 10 Botox 400 U 86/NA +74 −16 NA 12 wk ≥12 wk 3
Smith et al [29] 42 Botox 100–300 U NA/NA +61 −10 NA 24 wk ≥24 wk 3
Grosse et al [31] 66 Botox 300 U 73/NA +40 NA NA NA 36–44 wk 3
Dysport 750–1000 U
Giannantoni et al [22] 12 Botox 300 U vs RTX 73/−77 +54 −44 NA 112 wk 35 wk (per injection) 1b
Bagi et al [24] 15 Botox 300 U 87/NA +31 −59 NA 6 wk 30 wk 3
Kuo [26] 30 Botox 200 U 8/NA +11 51 (IPSS) 12 wk 21 wk 3
Reitz et al [11] 200 Botox 300 U 73/NA +54 (week 12) −51 (week 12) NA 36 wk ≥36 wk 3
+29 (week 36) −28 (week 36)
Kennelly et al [23] 10 Botox 300 U 80/NA +23 −5 NA 24 wk 12–24 wk 3
Schurch et al [2] 21 Botox 200 or 300 U 64/NA +54 −44 NA 36 wk ≥36 wk 3

Despite heterogeneous designs, all single-injection studies showed significant improvements in a variety of outcomes concerning symptomatology, urodynamics, and quality of life. The LoE for a beneficial effect of BoNTA in NDO is 1b. There is LoE 3 for efficacy of repeat treatments.MCC = maximum cystometric capacity; Pdetmax = maximum detrusor pressure; QoL = quality of life; LoE = levels of evidence; DO = detrusor overactivity; NA = not applicable; UDI6-IIQ7 = Urinary Distress Inventory and Incontinence Impact Questionnaire short forms; VAS = Visual Analogue Scale; UDI-6 = Urinary Distress Inventory short form; SSI = Symptom Severity Index; I-QoL = Urinary Incontinence Quality of Life scale; IPSS = International Prostate Symptom Score; CVA = cerebrovascular accident; SCI = spinal cord injury; RTX = resiniferatoxin.

* Results not included in analysis of means.

Two independent, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multinational, randomised, phase three studies are currently ongoing to asses the potential use of Botox for the treatment of neurogenic OAB in SCI and MS patients. The studies are evaluating the efficacy, safety profile, as well as the duration of effect of two different Botox dosages for this indication. Two additional, nonpivotal studies are part of this clinical development programme. These studies are being conducted to support regulatory approval for neurogenic OAB.

3.3.2. Adult non-neurogenic overactive bladder and detrusor overactivity

A total of 641 non-neurogenic OAB patients with or without DO demonstrable by urodynamics have been treated with BoNTs in 29 single-injection studies. These included 2 small RCTs, 1 with BoNTA and 1 with BoNTB [43], and [44]; 3 randomised trials comparing the efficacy or tolerance of different doses of BoNTA or the efficacy of different injection techniques with the same toxin dose [45], [46], and [47]; and 23 open-label studies examining the effect of BoNTA (21 studies) [13], [14], [15], [25], [26], [28], [29], [34], [35], [40], [48], [49], [50], [51], [52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58], and [59] or BoNTB (2 studies) [60], and [61] on the symptoms, urodynamic parameters, and QoL of a non-neurogenic OAB/DO population alone or in comparison with results of an NDO population. The studies lack homogeneity in design and primary outcome but consistently show significant improvements in treatment parameters (Table 5, and Table 6).

Table 5 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) for treatment of intractable symptoms of non-neurogenic overactive bladder (OAB) or detrusor overactivity (DO)

Study No. of patients BoNT type, dosage % improvement or success Continence % completely dry/% Δ leak episodes Frequency change, % Urgency change, % MCC change, % Pdetmax change, % DO resolution, % QoL improvement, % Duration of study or benefit LoE
Jeffery et al [59] 25 Dysport 500 U – 32/NA −22 −22 +19 – 40 37 9 mo (study) 3
6 mo (benefit)
Lee et alb [52] 10 Purified toxin 50–200 U 89 50/−58 −26 – +125 −56 – 22 3 mo (study) 3
6 mo (benefit)
Sahai et al [44] 32 Botox 200 U vs placebo – 70/NA −40 −53 +45 −49 25 52 6 mo (study) 1b
Kuo [46] 45 Botox 100 U detrusor 80/3 mo 60/NA −48 −34 +27 −20 – 93 9 mo (study) 2b
Botox 100 U suburo 42/6 mo 47/NA +24 −28 +51 +10 80 6 mo (benefit)
Botox 100 U base 16/9 mo 53/NA −40 −50 +12 +9 87
Ghalayini and Al-Ghazo [53] 16 Dysport 500 U – 75/NA −55 – +36 −26 – Satisfied: 5 mo (benefit) 3
87.5
Karsenty et al [54] 11 Botox 100 U including trigone 36.4 33.3/NA −33.3 – +128 −20 75 – 6 wk (study) 3
Kuo [45] 35 Botox 100 U vs Botox 150 U vs Botox 200 U 77.1 40/NA – – +36, 100 U* +6, 100 U* – – 3 mo (study) 2b
+36, 150 U* −29, 150 U* Benefit:
+47, 200 U* –21, 200 U* 6.7 mo, 300 U*
5.5 mo, 200 U*
3.5 mo, 100 U* Duration shorter with 100 U*
Lucioni et al [51] 40 Trigone vs nontrigone 63 –/– – – – – – 26.5 trigone 3 mo (study) 3
23 nontrigone
Schmnid et al [15] 100 Botox 100 U 88 NA/−86 −50 82, no urgency +56 – −74 – 9 mo (study) 3
Kalsi et al [34] 16† Botox 200 U – NA/−83 −33 −68 +242 −89 – 72 4 mo (study) 3
Kalsi et al [35] 38 Botox 200 U 73 (ITT analysis) NA/−35 −18.2 −28.1 +46 −9 – – 4 mo (study) 3
10.4 mo (benefit)
Popat et al [13] 31† Botox 200 U – 57.3/NA −36.3 −50.7 +111 −24.5 – – 4 mo (study) 3
Smith et al [29] 17 Botox 100–300 U 50 excellent NA/−87 −40 – +61 0 – – 6 mo (study) 3
Smith et al [58] 10 Botox 100 U 80 NA/NA – – – – – – 3–6 mo (benefit) 3
Schulte-Baukloh et al [56] 44 Botox 200–300 U 86 NA/−43 −13 – +34 – – UDI−6: 28 9 mo (study) 3
6 mo (benefit)
Kessler et al [28] 11 Botox 300 U – 91/NA −63.6 – +54.5 −35.5 – – 5 mo (benefit) 3
Rajkumar et al [49] 15 Botox 300 U – 54.5/NA −60 – +16.8 – 40 32 9 mo (study) 3
6 mo (benefit)
Schulte-Baukloh et al [57] 7 Botox 300 U 71.4 NA/−64 −18 – +14 – – 42 6 mo (study) 3
Kuo et al [50] 20 Botox 200 U 85 45/NA – – +40 −28 −65 – 6 mo (study) 3
Werner et al [55] 26 Botox 100 U 60 80/NA −35 – +58 – −60 – 9 mo (study) 3
Rapp et al [14] 35 Botox 300 U 58 −54 (pads: no) – – – 24 6 mo (study) 3
Kuo [26] 18 Botox 200 U 78 excellent or improved 39/NA – – +11* −35* – 51* 5.3 mo (benefit) 3
Flynn et al [48] 7 Botox 150 U 64 NA/NA −12 – – – – 77 6 mo 3

Mean 69 58/−65 −35.5 −49.9 +65.5 −32.4 54.1 47.9 6.2 mo (benefit) –

Despite heterogeneous designs, all single-injection studies showed significant improvements in a variety of outcomes concerning symptomatology, urodynamics, and QoL. The LoE for a beneficial effect of BoNTA in idiopathic DO (IDO) is at 1b.MCC = maximum cystometric capacity; Pdetmax = maximum detrusor pressure; DO = detrusor overactivity; QoL = quality of life; LoE = levels of evidence; NA = not applicable; suburo = suburothelium; UDI-6 = Urinary Distress Inventory short form; ITT = intent to treat.

* Results not analysed separately for IDO or NDO and not included in analysis of means.

† Patients included in Kalsi et al [35].

Table 6 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type B (BoNTB) for treatment of intractable symptoms of non-neurogenic overactive bladder (OAB) or detrusor overactivity (DO)a

Author No. of patients BoNT type, dosage % improvement or success Continence change, % Frequency change, % Urgency change, % MCC change, % Pdetmax DO QOL change, % Duration of study or benefit LoE
Hirst et al [61] 20 BTX/B 5000 U 62 <10 wk −50 −8.3 – +40.7 – – +18.2 4.5 mo (benefit) 3
35 10 wk
Ghei et ala [43] 17 BTX/B 5000 U – −89 −33 – – – – – 6 wk (study) 1b
Dykstra et al [60] 15 Myobloc 2500 U, Myobloc 3750 U, Myobloc 5000 U, Myobloc 10 000 U, and Myobloc 15 000 U 93 93 continent −50 – – – – – 3 mo (benefit); longer duration with higher doses 3

MCC = maximum cystometric capacity; Pdetmax = maximum detrusor pressure; QoL = quality of life; LoE = levels of evidence.

a There is high LoE of 1b that BoNTB is effective but of short duration.

Summarised results showed that Botox 200 U was most commonly used in these studies. Most of the data come from intradetrusor injections. There is LoE 1b for a beneficial effect of BoNTA on OAB symptoms, urodynamic parameters, and QoL in patients with IDO refractory to oral pharmacotherapy [44]. Efficacy rates for BoNTA varied (range: 36.4–89.0%; mean: 69%) due to different definitions of efficacy and assessment tools used. Complete continence was achieved in a mean of 58% of patients (range: 32–86%); all studies reported significant reductions in incontinence episodes (mean: 65%). The mean benefit from a single treatment was 6 mo (range: 4–10 mo). The range of duration of effect depended on the dosage, site, and depth of injections (LoE 2b). There is no full paper on the efficacy of repeat injections in non-neurogenic OAB/DO. There is LoE 1b that BoNTB is also effective but of short duration [43] (Table 6).

3.4. Comparison of different injection techniques

Injection techniques into the bladder have not been standardised. In the original application in NDO, BoNTA was administered through a rigid cystoscope [2]. Less invasive techniques have since been introduced [25], and [26]. The “Dasgupta technique” uses ultrafine injection needles via a flexible cystoscope under local anaesthesia with injections evenly distributed in the bladder wall, apart from the trigone. It is quick and has good patient tolerability (LoE 3) [13], and [25].

3.4.1. Rigid versus flexible cystoscope

Administration of BoNTA using either a flexible or a rigid cystoscope produced significant improvements of symptoms, urodynamics, and QoL parameters in placebo-controlled and open-label studies [12], [13], and [44], but there has been no direct comparative study. Researchers using the minimally invasive technique to inject the bladder base and trigone only claimed efficacy comparable with their older rigid cystoscopic technique (LoE 4) [58]. To prevent backflow of the toxin, either the bladder should be relatively full when rigid cystoscopic injections are performed [62], or ultrafine needles should be used [63] (LoE 4).

3.4.2. Trigonal versus nontrigonal injections

Based on mounting evidence that BoNTA may also affect sensory nerves, investigators have advocated injecting the trigone or the suburothelial space [13], [26], [50], and [64]. No evidence of new or worsening of preexisting vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) was found following trigonal injections [54].

3.4.3. Number of injection sites

No direct comparative studies exist. More extensive coverage of the toxin in the bladder was associated with better outcomes and duration of effect but at the cost of voiding dysfunction [46] (LoE 2b). Efficacy of 10-site submucosal injections was thought to be similar to that of previous work by the same group injecting 30 sites [58] (LoE 4).

The number of injection sites also depends on the dilution and dose used. The results which established the efficacy of Botox in NDO used Botox 10 U/ml per site.

Combined detrusor and sphincter injections could be used to circumvent CISC (LoE 3) [33], [56], [65], and [66].

3.4.4. Detrusor versus suburothelial injections

Most of the data come from detrusor injections of Botox. The LoE of data relating to the advantages of detrusor injections is 2b–4. Intradetrusor and suburothelial injections increased cystometric capacity compared with bladder-base injections (LoE 2b).

3.5. Detrusor overactivity in children

BoNT detrusor injections have been used in 148 children with NDO mainly due to myelomeningocele in eight open-label studies [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], and [74] and in one study with 21 children with non-neurogenic DO (Table 7) [75]. Indications for BoNT treatment were identical to those for adults. There has been little experience with children <3 yr old [69], [70], and [71]. Published experience has been only with BoNTA, the majority of studies (n = 5) using Botox.

Table 7 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) for treatment of intractable symptoms of neurogenic and non-neurogenic overactive bladder (OAB) or detrusor overactivity (DO) in children

Study No. of patients BoNT type, dosage Vrefl change, % Pdetmax change, % MCC change, % Bladder compliance change, % Incontinence change, % Duration of study or benefit LoE
Akbar et al [71] 19 Dysport 20 U/kg up to 400 U NA −39 +92 +166 Continent: 84 7.8–8 mo; 3 repeat injections 3
Neel et al [74] 23 12 U/kg up to 300 U (brand not mentioned) NA −34 −70 NA NA ≥6 mo 3
Altaweel et al [72] 20 5 U/kg up to 300 U (brand not mentioned) NA −49 +56 +160 Continent: 65 8.1 mo; 1 repeat injection 3
Kajbafzadeh et al [73] 26 Botox 10 U/kg NA −40 +162 NA Incontinent: −88 3
Continent: 73
Hoebeke et al [75] 21 Botox 100 U NA NA +62 NA NA ≥6 mo 3
Schulte-Baukloh et al [70] 10 Botox 12 U/kg up to 300 U +88 −39 +72 109 NA 7.8 mo; 5 repeat injections 3
Riccabona et al [69] 15 10 U/kg up to 360 U (brand not mentioned) +314 −46 +117 NA Continent: 87 10.5 mo 3
Schulte-Baukloh et al [68] 20 Botox 12 U/kg up to 300 U +85 −42 +35 +219 NA 6 mo 3
Schulte-Baukloh et al [67] 17 Botox 12 U/kg up to 300 U +112 −33 +57 +122 Incontinent: −33 2–4 wk 3

Average Σ 169 – +149.7 –40.3 +80.3 +155.2 Incontinent: −61 7.5 mo –
∅ 19 Continent: 77

Considerable improvements are shown in the following areas: urinary continence, MCC, Pdetmax, and bladder compliance as well as downgrading or disappearance of vesicoureteric reflux, but the LoE was only 3. Repeat injections were also efficacious (LoE 3).BoNT = botulinum neurotoxin; Vrefl = volume at first reflex detrusor contraction; Pdetmax = maximum detrusor pressure; MCC = maximum cystometric capacity; LoE = levels of evidence; NA = not applicable.

In NDO, Botox was used in dosages of 5–12 U/kg of body weight up to 300 U [67], [68], [70], and [72]; Dysport was used in dosages of 20 U/kg of body weight up to 400 U [71]. Lower dosages (Botox 100 U) were used in non-neurogenic DO [75]. Caution needs to be raised, however, regarding the total dosage in children also treated with BoNTA for spasticity. Results suggest that 11–20 injection sites would be sufficient. The choice between general anaesthesia [68], [69], and [73] and sedoanalgesia with or without local anaesthesia [70], and [71] depended mainly on the age of the patient. Considerable improvements in urinary continence, MCC, Pdetmax, bladder compliance, and incidence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) were reported as well as resolution of VUR, but the LoE was only 3 (Table 7). Repeat injections at intervals of 6–9 mo led to continuous improvement [70], [71], and [72], but adverse effects on detrusor compliance in the long term cannot yet be excluded [70]. Side-effects were rare and similar to those reported in adults [71]. Data on the effect of the treatment on “low-compliance bladders” or the use of anticholinergics [68], [70], and [74] are insufficient.

3.6. Urethral sphincter

External urethral sphincter injections can be performed alone [1], [29], [56], [76], [77], [78], [79], [80], [81], [82], [83], [84], [85], [86], [87], [88], [89], [90], and [91] or in combination with detrusor injections [33], [56], [65], and [66]. A total of 640 adults and 40 children have been treated in 17 full studies (14 with adults and 3 with children) and 2 case reports (1 with adults and 1 with children) [92], and [93], including 2 placebo-controlled trials and 1 active comparator–controlled trial. Most of the experience has been in patients with nDSD [1], [29], [33], [76], [78], [79], [80], [81], [83], [84], [86], [87], [88], and [90]. Other applications included dysfunctional voiding, nonrelaxing urethral sphincter, idiopathic detrusor underactivity, psychologic inhibition of voiding, iatrogenic obstruction [1], [56], [77], [82], [85], [86], and [92], and bladder-neck dyssynergia (injection into the bladder neck) [94]. Reports involved only BoNTA. Botox dosages ranged between 50 U and 200 U; the standard dose was 100 U reconstituted in 4 ml of normal saline [1], [56], [65], [66], [76], and [86]. One study used Dysport 150 U [87]. Transurethral, paraurethral, or transperineal administration with or without electromyogram (EMG) guidance has been used. Improvements have been reported in the following measures: urine flow, PVR, maximal urethral closure pressure, voiding Pdetmax, bladder capacity, frequency of spontaneous or CISC voiding, hesitancy, and QoL (LoE 1b) (Table 8). The benefit was maintained for a mean of 4.6 mo. The database on repeated sphincter injections was weak.

Table 8 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) for urethral sphincter injections in adults and children

Study No. of patients BoNT type, dosage PVR change, % MUP/MUCP/DLPP change, % Max void pressure change, % Retention (catheter free) % improvement or success Duration of study or benefit LoE
Adults
Liao and Kuo [66] 200 Botox 50–100 U ≥–50 NA NA −50 CISC 88.5 1 mo 3
Kuo [91] 27 Botox 50–100 U −91 NA NA NA NA >1 yr 3
Gallien et al [86] 86 Botox 100 U vs placebo (+5 mg alfuzosin b.d. in both groups) −15.5 NA −21 NA NA ∼4 mo 1b
Kuo [87] 30 Botox 100 U vs medical treatment −44.4 NA −22 NA 80 3–9 mo 2a
Smith et al [29] 68 Botox 100–200 U −63 NA −36 83 NA 6 mo 3
Kuo [65] 103 Botox 50–100 U −61 –26 MUCP −31 87 85 4 mo 3
Kuo [85] 20 Botox 50 U −83 –24 MUCP −31 85 90 3–4 mo 3
De Seze et al [84] 13 Botox 100 U vs 0.5 lidocaine −60 vs NA NA NA NA 31% <3 mo; 1b
−16 46% = 3 mo;
23% >3 mo
Smith et al [92] 1 Botox 100 U NA NA NA 100 100 NA 3
Phelan et al [115] 21 Botox 80–100 U −71 – – 90 67 3–4 mo 3
Petit et al [81] 17 Dysport 150 U −54 −21 MUP −20 NA 53 2–3 mo 3
Gallien et al [82] 5 Botox 100 U −13 −0.3 MUP −7 NA NA 3 mo 3
Wheeler et al [80] 3 Botox 100 U NA NA NA NA 66 – 3
Schurch et al [78] 24 Botox 100 U or Dysport 250 U –13 –48 MUP NA NA NA 3 mo (1 injection); 3
9–13 mo (repeat injection)
Fowler et al [77] 6 Dysport 200 U in 1 injection (5 patients) or 2 injections (1 patient) NA NA NA NA 0 – 3
Dykstra et al [76] 5 Oculinum 140–240 U −60 −31 MUP NA NA NA 2 mo 1b
Dykstra et al [1] 11 Oculinum 20–240 U −64 −33 MUP NA NA NA 50 d 3

Average Σ 640 –56 –26 –24 69 66 4.64 mo
∅ 37.6
Children
Petronijevic et al [90] 9 Dysport 500 U (combined with standard/behavioural urotherapy) −64 NA NA NA 78 6 mo 3
Radojicic et al [89] 20 BoNTA 50 U or 100 U (brand not mentioned) −65 NA NA NA 85 ≥9 mo 3
Mokhless et al [88] 10 Botox 50–100 U −77 −37 DLPP NA 100 NA 6 mo 3
Mall et al [93] 1 Botox 40 U −94 NA NA NA NA ≥9 wk 3

Average Σ 40 – −75 −37 – 100 82 5.75 mo –
∅ 10

There is LoE 1b for an action for the use of BoNTA in detrusor-sphincter dyssynergia in adult neurogenic patients; however, the clinical significance of the results needs further evaluation.BoNT = botulinum neurotoxin; PVR = postvoid residual; MUP = maximum urethral pressure; MUCP = maximum urethral closing pressure; DLPP = detrusor leak-point pressure; max void pressure = maximum voiding detrusor pressure; LoE = levels of evidence; CISC = clean, intermittent self-catheterisation; NA = not applicable; b.d. = twice daily.

Sphincter injections in children are reported almost exclusively in non-neurogenic dysfunctional voiding refractory to conservative management [83]. Administration was either transurethral [88] or transperineal [90]. Botox dosages varied (50–100 U) depending on age and body weight [88], and [89]; Dysport was used in dosages of up to 500 U [90]. Significant improvements have been reported in Qmax, pelvic floor EMG, PVR, detrusor leak-point pressure, incidence of UTIs, avoidance of clean intermittent catheterisation (CIC), hydronephrosis, and incontinence, but the LoE is only 3 (Table 8). The effect is said to last up to 6 mo [88], and [90]. No long-term data are available.

3.7. Bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis

To date, only five open-label studies have examined the effect of BoNTA in a total 71 patients with bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis (BPS/IC) (Table 9). The studies suffer from considerable heterogeneity in diagnostic criteria of BPS/IC, symptom severity, efficacy measures, BoNTA dose and dilution, site and number of injections, safety evaluation, and duration of follow-up. The vast majority of data come from the use of Botox; a dosage of 100–200 U is most commonly used. In four of five studies, submucosal injections of the trigone were involved in an attempt to affect the afferent pathways thought to be responsible for the origin of pain; however, a small nonrandomised comparative trial claimed no additional benefit of trigonal injections (LoE 3) [95]. In four of five studies, improvements were recorded in pain scores (mean decrease: 47.5%; range: 25–79%), daytime frequency (mean decrease: 38%; range: 23–54%), nocturia (mean decrease: 46%; range: 45–47%), and MCC (mean increase, 28%; range: 24–36%), with subjective improvement reported by 69–86% of patients [3], [96], [97], and [98], but the LoE is only 3 (Table 9). One study reported only 20% efficacy rate [95].

Table 9 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) for treatment of intractable symptoms of bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis (BPS/IC)

Study No. of patients BoNT type, dosage Site of injection Follow-up, months Daytime frequency change, % Nocturia change, % VAS change, % FD vol change, % MCC change, % LoE
Smith et al [3] 13 Dysport/Botox 100–200 U Submucosal trigone/bladder floor 3 44 45 79 37 36 3
Kuo [95] 10 Botox 100–200 U Submucosal trigone 3 23 NR 25 25 28 3
Giannantoni et al [96] 14 Botox 200 U Submucosal trigone/bladder floor 3 54 47 34 NR 24 3
Liu and Kuo [97] 19 Botox 100–200 U Intravesical, plus hydrodistension 2 wk later 3 30 NR 52 NR 24 3
Giannantoni et al [98]* 15 Botox 200 U Submucosal trigone/lateral walls 12 12.5 29 6 NR 4 3

Studies were single-centre, open-label, small-sized, and heterogeneous in their design; thus, the LoE for improvements recorded in symptoms and urodynamic parameters could only be set at 3.VAS = visual analogue scale; FD vol = volume at first desire to void; MCC = maximum cystometric capacity; LoE = level of evidence; NR = not reported.

* The 1-yr results are presented for this study.

Follow-up was up to 3 mo in four of five studies. Only one study reported 1-yr follow-up results of a single injection, showing that the beneficial effect of BoNTA lasts <5 mo [98]. No data exist on repeat injections.

3.7.1. Mechanism of action

A single human study combining intravesical BoNTA injections with hydrodistention found reduced bladder-tissue levels of NGF after treatment [97].

3.8. Prostate
3.8.1. Rationale of use

The autonomic nervous system controls secretion of prostate epithelium and contraction of smooth muscle, also displaying trophic effects [99]. Adrenergic and muscarinic receptors are abundantly distributed within the prostate [100], and [101].

3.8.2. Mechanism of action

In animals, BoNTA prostate injections induced atrophy of the gland and glandular apoptosis [102], and [103], decrease of proliferative cells and α1-adrenergic receptors with no change of androgen receptors [104], impairment of the contractile properties of the prostate [105], and reduction in the local inflammatory reaction induced by capsaicin injection [106]. Human data are inadequate.

3.8.3. Clinical studies

To date, 118 patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)–associated lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) have been treated in a single-centre RCT [4] (LoE 1b), and four open-label studies have been conducted (LoE 3) (Table 10). Most patients were poor surgical candidates or inadequately responded to first-line treatment. All studies used Botox (100–200 U) delivered via transperineal, transurethral, or transrectal injection. All studies showed significant improvements in symptom scores, peak-flow rates, PVR, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and QoL as well as decreases in prostate size (Table 10) [4], [107], [108], [109], and [110]. The validity of the available data is poor due to different inclusion criteria (eg, prostate size and severity of LUTS), routes of administration, BoNTA doses, dilutions, number of injection sites, criteria for efficacy and safety, and follow-ups that were used. Interestingly, no complications were reported. No long-term data are available, and a possible effect on sexual function has not been examined.

Table 10 Studies using botulinum neurotoxin type A (BoNTA) for treatment of intractable benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)–associated lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS)

Study No. of patients (n = 118) Dose Administration IPSS decrease, % Peak flow increase, % Prostate volume decrease, % PSA level decrease, % PVR decrease, % QoL improvement, % Follow-up, months LoE
Maria et al [4] 30 Botox 200 U Transperineal; 50 U/ml: 2 ml each lobe 61 180 60 44 65 NR 19.6 1b
Chuang et al [107] 16 Botox 100 U Transperineal; 50 U/2 ml: 2 ml each lobe 61 171 60 10 61 53 10 3
Kuo [108] 10 Botox 200 U Transurethral, 200 U/20 ml: 10 sites, lateral and median 80* 152 24 NR 85 53 6 3
Chuang et al [109] 41 Botox 100 U† Transperineal under TRUS guidance; 4 ml dilution: 2 ml each lobe 61 61 17 NR 40 64 12 3
Botox 200 U† Transperineal under TRUS guidance; 4 ml dilution: 2 ml each lobe 73 70 17 NR 72 56 12 3
Silva et al [110] 21 Botox 200 U Transrectal under TRUS guidance NR 114 23 17 NR NR 6 3

Mean 64 125 35 24 65 52 10.7 –

Despite the sound scientific background of its use and the presence of one randomised controlled trial, the validity of the data showing significant improvements in symptom scores, peak flow rates, PVR, PSA, and QoL as well as decreases in prostate size was minimised by the considerable variability in study designs and the lack of long-term follow-up.IPSS = International Prostate Symptom Score; PSA = prostate-specific antigen; PVR = postvoid residual urine volume; QoL = quality of life; LoE = level of evidence; NR = not reported; TRUS = transrectal ultrasound.

* Dysuria.

† Based on prostate size (>30 ml).

3.9. Pelvic-floor disorders

One RCT [111], six open-label studies [112], [113], [114], [115], [116], [117], [118], [119], and [120], and four case studies [121], [122], [123], and [124] have examined the effect of BoNTA in 87 patients suffering from pelvic-floor muscle “spasms” presenting as dyspareunia, dysmenorrhoea, or vestibulodynia as well as from chronic perineal pain, anorectal disorders, and other conditions, the aetiology of which remains unknown but are thought to be related to a neuropathic type of pain and are otherwise extremely difficult to treat [125].

3.9.1. Pelvic floor spasms

BoNTA was injected into the levator ani (puborectalis and pubococcygeus) muscles under conscious sedation.

One RCT, one open-label study, and two case studies produced LoE 2a–3 for a beneficial effect of Botox on dyspareunia, dysmenorrhoea, pelvic-floor pressure, sexual dysfunction, coital pain, pelvic-floor hypertonicity, and variability, which were refractory to conservative therapy [111], and [112].

3.9.2. Chronic perineal pain

A single case study (LoE 3) exists of BoNTA injected into the obturator internus muscle [113].

3.9.3. Anorectal disorders

BoNTA was used on anal fissures (LoE 2b) [120], [126], [127], and [128], faecal urgency, chronic constipation [118], [129], and [130], Hirchsprung’s disease [124], and rectal pain [114] (LoE 3).

3.9.4. Other conditions

Evidence supporting the use of BoNTA in treating pelvic-floor dysfunction unrelated to spasms [131], postpubovaginal sling retention [132], urethral stricture [133], and [134], prostatitis [135], and chronic pelvic pain syndrome in men [136] is preliminary (LoE 3) and deserves further evaluation.

3.10. Safety issues
3.10.1. Allergy and antibody formation towards the protein

Allergy has been described in nonurologic treatment, but antibody development is very rare (LoE 2a). In cases of complete treatment failure after repeated intradetrusor BoNTA injections, antibody production might have a causative role [137]. Increased presence of eosinophils in the suburothelium after repeat injections is of uncertain clinical significance [138].

3.10.2. Local effects

Either less [139] or no additional fibrosis [138], and [140] was found after one or repeat treatments in NDO or IDO bladders (LoE 2b). A shift towards a low compliance pattern was found in some NDO patients treated with a mean dosage of Dysport 750 U [42], thought to be due to wall-elasticity reduction (LoE 3). Most studies, however, show improvement of urodynamic compliance (LoE 1b–3).

Bruising and/or local small haematoma, pain at the injection site, and pelvic pain [14] can occur (LoE 3). Reports of UTIs vary (range: 6.4–35.0% of treated cases); although not treatment-related in NDO [12], they were associated with Botox treatment in IDO (LoE 1b) [44]. Haematuria (range: 3.2–5.0%), autonomic dysreflexia, and constipation (10% with BoNTB) [43] are also reported.

3.10.3. Effects on nontarget organs

Paralysis of distant muscle groups was described in case reports after injection into the sphincter [76] or the detrusor [141], and [142] (LoE 3). Reports of muscle weakness or “hypoasthenia” lasting from 2 wk to 2 mo range between 2.2% and 6% of cases treated with 1000 U Dysport [37], [42], and [71], but were also reported with 750 U (LoE 3) [31] and with 300 U Botox [142]. Other systemic side-effects include flu-like symptoms (BoNTA) [13], dry mouth (10%), and general malaise (5%) (BoNTB) [43].

In all aspects the safety seems clinically good, though a limited number of urologic studies are available for some; however, reports of subclinical EMG effects in distant muscles and subclinical changes in respiratory heart rate variation and bowel function after treatment of nonurologic cases depict the need for further studies on possible effects of urologically applied BoNTs on other autonomic organs [143], and [144].

The most common side-effect of bladder injections is increased PVR, which may necessitate self-catheterisation and is of special clinical significance in IDO. This side-effect is drug related [44] (LoE 1b), and its incidence appears to be dosage dependent (LoE 1b) [45]. The rates for CISC or suprapubic catheterisation are extremely variable (range: 4–45%) [13], [26], and [28], possibly due to variable dosages used and differences regarding definitions of PVR at which CISC is needed. Combined detrusor and sphincter injections were beneficial in circumventing transient CISC [56].

There are case reports of stress urinary incontinence and nocturnal enuresis after sphincter injection in adults and children [82], and [89] (LoE 3).

return to article outline

4. Conclusions

The use of BoNTs in LUT and pelvic-floor disorders is rapidly evolving. These guidelines summarise the most recent published or accepted literature and provide recommendations for their use in clinical practice. The consensus committee recommends further collaborative and larger placebo-controlled and comparative trials to evaluate the efficacy of single and repeat injections, the duration of effect, the short- and long-term safety, the optimal dose and injection technique, the timing for repeat injection, and the cost-effectiveness of BoNTs in treating patients with urologic and pelvic-floor disorders.

return to article outline


Author contributions: Apostolos Apostolidis had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Study concept and design: Apostolidis.

Acquisition of data: Apostolidis, Dasgupta, Denys, Elneil, Fowler, Giannantoni, Karsenty, Schulte-Baukloh, Schurch, Wyndaele.

Analysis and interpretation of data: Apostolidis, Dasgupta, Denys, Elneil, Fowler, Giannantoni, Karsenty, Schulte-Baukloh, Schurch, Wyndaele.

Drafting of the manuscript: Apostolidis, Dasgupta, Denys, Elneil, Fowler, Giannantoni, Karsenty, Schulte-Baukloh, Schurch, Wyndaele.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Apostolidis, Dasgupta, Denys, Elneil, Fowler, Giannantoni, Karsenty, Schulte-Baukloh, Schurch, Wyndaele.

Statistical analysis: Apostolidis, Dasgupta, Denys, Elneil, Fowler, Giannantoni, Karsenty, Schulte-Baukloh, Schurch, Wyndaele.

Obtaining funding: Apostolidis.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Supervision: Apostolidis.

Other (specify): None.

Financial disclosures: I certify that all conflicts of interest, including specific financial interests and relationships and affiliations relevant to the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript (eg, employment/affiliation, grants or funding, consultancies, honoraria, stock ownership or options, expert testimony, royalties, or patents filed, received, or pending), are the following: A. Apostolidis is a recipient of unrestricted educational grants from Allergan Ltd and has acted as consultant for Allergan Ltd and Astellas. He is an investigator for Allergan, Pfizer, and Astellas. P. Dasgupta is a recipient of unrestricted educational grants from Allergan Ltd and has acted as consultant for Allergan Ltd. He is also an investigator for Allergan. P. Denys is a consultant and investigator for Allergan. He is also an investigator for Astellas and Ono Pharma and is a lecturer for Lilly and Medtronic. S. Elneil is a paid consultant for Medtronic. C.J. Fowler is a recipient of unrestricted educational grants from Allergan Ltd and Pfizer Inc, is a consultant for Allergan Ltd and Medtronic, and is an investigator for Allergan. A. Giannantoni is a paid consultant for Allergan (Irvine-USA). G. Karsenty is a consultant for Allergan France and Medtronic MGU. His collaboration with Allergan France consists in being part of the French study group for the use of Botox in the lower urinary tract. He organizes hands-on training sessions on Interstim therapy (Medtronic) for lower urinary tract dysfunctions. B. Schurch is a paid consultant and investigator for Allergan, Astellas, and Pfizer. J.-J. Wyndaele has acted as a consultant for Pfizer, Eli Lilly, and Novartis. He has received honoraria from Astellas, Pfizer, Novartis, Eli Lilly, and Ismar Healthcare. He has been or is an investigator for Astellas, Pfizer, GSK, Novartis, Esteril, Allergan, and Schwarz. H. Schulte-Baukloh has no conflicts of interest.

Funding/Support and role of the sponsor: Allergan provided an unrestricted educational grant towards the realisation of the First European Consensus Conference on the use of Botulinum toxin in Urology. Pfizer, Astellas, Ipsen, and Sanofi-Aventis provided travel awards towards the Third European Masterclass on the Use of Botulinum Toxin in Urology. The abovementioned companies did not have a role in the conception and design of the events, in the collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data, and in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript. Allergan kindly provided information included in section 3.3.1, last paragraph.

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Footnotes

a 2nd Department of Urology, Papageorgiou Hospital and Centre for Study of Continence and Pelvic Floor Dysfunctions, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

b Department of Urology, Guy’s and St. Thomas’ Hospitals and GKT Medical School, London, UK

c Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Raymond Poincare Hospital, University of Versailles, Versailles, France

d Department of Uro-Neurology, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, UCLH, London, UK

e Department of Uro-Neurology, Institute of Neurology, UCL, London, UK

f Department of Urology, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

g Department of Urology, Sainte Marguerite Hospital, University of Mediterranée, Marseilles Faculty of Medicine, Marseilles, France

h Department of Urology, St. Hedwig Hospital, Medical School of Charité University Hospital, Berlin, Germany

i Neurourology, University Hospital Balgrist, Zurich, Switzerland

j Department of Urology, University Hospital UZA, Antwerp, Belgium

lowast Corresponding author. 2nd Department of Urology, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Papageorgiou Hospital, Ring Road, Nea Efkarpia, 56403 Thessaloniki, Greece.

Article information

PII: S0302-2838(08)01109-3
DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2008.09.009
© 2008 European Association of Urology. Published by Elsevier B.V.

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