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European Urology

Volume 48, issue 1, pages 1-178, July 2005

Review - Overactive Bladder

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The Effects of Antimuscarinic Treatments in Overactive Bladder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Christopher Chapple a * , Vik Khullar b, Zahava Gabriel c, Julie Ann Dooley d.

Accepted 24 February 2005, Published online 22 March 2005, pages 5 - 26

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Abstract

Objectives:

To evaluate the tolerability, safety and efficacy of antimuscarinic drugs used to treat overactive bladder and to identify any differences between individual antimuscarinics.

Methods:

Medline, Embase, CCTR and Cinahl databases were searched for published RCTs including an antimuscarinic agent from 1966 to August 2004. Data from included trials were extracted and meta-analysed where possible.

Results:

Fifty-six trials were included. The antimuscarinics were found to be safe and efficacious. All antimuscarinics apart from oxybutynin IR were found to be well tolerated. Dry mouth was the most commonly reported adverse event and no drug was associated with an increase in any serious adverse event. There were significant differences between the antimuscarinics in rates of withdrawal and rates and range of adverse events and efficacy outcomes.

Conclusions:

The antimuscarinics have different tolerability and safety profiles, which are clinically significant.

Keywords: (A)trial published in abstract form only, AEany adverse event, ANMFthe number of patients achieving normal micturition frequency, ASAEany serious adverse event, BOObladder outlet obstruction, CCTControlled Clinical Trial, CCTRCochrane Controlled Trials Register, CIconfidence interval, CIEmean change in incontinence episodes per 24 hours, CMmean change in the number of micturitions per 24 hours, CUEmean change in the number of urgency episodes per 24 hours, CVVmean change in volume voided per micturition, dardarifenacin, DOdetrusor overactivity, ERextended release, ICIInternational Consultation on Incontinence, ICSInternational Continence Society, IIQIncontinence Impact Questionnaire, IRimmediate release, ITTintention to treat, IUGAInternational Urogynaecological Association, KHQKing's Health Questionnaire, LUTDlower urinary tract disease, LUTlower urinary tract, MImixed incontinence, nnumber of patients included in the analysis, NRnot reported, OABoveractive bladder, OBJECTOveractive Bladder: Judging Effective Control and Treatment, OPERAOveractive Bladder: Performance of Extended Release Agents, oxyoxybutynin, Pplacebo, PPper protocol, propropiverine, PROpatient reported outcome, QoLquality of life, RCthe number of patients returned to continence, RCTrandomised controlled trial, RRrelative risk ratio, SF-36Short-form 36, SF-12Short-form 12, SIUSocieté Internationale d’Urologie, solsolifenacin, SUIstress urinary incontinence, (t)titrated dose, (t 5)titrated from 5 mg/day, (t 7.5)titrated from 7.5 mg/day, (t 15)titrated from 15 mg/day, TDStransdermal system, toltolterodine, trotrospium, UDIUrogenital Distress Inventory, UIurinary incontinence, UTIurinary tract infection, UUIurge urinary incontinence, VASvisual analog scale, WMDweighted mean difference, WOCNWound Ostomy Continence Nurses’ Society, (X)trial was of cross-over design, Antimuscarinic, Overactive bladder, Detrusor overactivity, Incontinence, Systematic review, Meta-analysis.

Article Outline

1. Introduction

Overactive bladder (OAB), otherwise known as the urgency frequency syndrome, is a symptom complex defined by the International Continence Society (ICS) as ‘urgency, with or without urge incontinence, usually with frequency and nocturia’ [1]. This is distinct from the urodynamic diagnosis of detrusor overactivity (DO), which refers to an involuntary rise in detrusor pressure during filling of the bladder in a laboratory situation in a conscious co-operative patient [1].

Non-surgical treatment is the mainstay of therapy for OAB and available options include bladder training, biofeedback, medication, and a combination of these options. The principal pharmacological treatment utilised to improve the symptoms of OAB is based on muscarinic receptor antagonism (antimuscarinics). To date no proof of concept studies for other oral pharmaco-therapeutic mechanisms have shown any significant efficacy. The mode of action of antimuscarinics, traditionally considered to be on muscarinic receptors lying within the detrusor muscle, has become increasingly controversial. At licensed doses, antimuscarinic treatments do not inhibit the normal voiding phase of the micturition cycle, whilst they do alter bladder sensation during filling as evidenced by an improvement in filling symptoms (urgency, frequency, nocturia and incontinence) and bladder capacity. This has led to a recent hypothesis suggesting that antimuscarinic treatments may act via other mechanisms related to the afferent as opposed to the efferent system.

This systematic review was carried out to assess the safety, tolerability and efficacy of antimuscarinic treatments for OAB and DO. Further objectives of the review were to: (1) consider the effects of antimuscarinics on outcomes such as quality of life (QoL), which are important to patients and (2) assess whether there are differences between individual antimuscarinic drugs that are currently being used to treat OAB. These objectives were included to address criticism of a previous Cochrane review of pharmacological therapies for OAB [2].

The Cochrane review was criticised because the cover statement and conclusions do not appear to reflect the results of the review [3], [4], and [5]. In particular, the outcome measures reported by Herbison and colleagues were ‘not necessarily the most pertinent outcomes to patients with OAB’ [6]. Although important factors such as QoL were mentioned in the review, these were not explored further in any detail. To address this criticism, we have analysed all reported QoL data in included trials and carried out meta-analyses of these data where possible. These analyses are described in detail in a separate publication [42].

In addition, the Cochrane review did not attempt to differentiate between individual antimuscarinic drugs. The authors chose to ‘lump’ the drugs together and evaluate the effects of the class, rather than to ‘split’ the drugs and assess any variation in effect between drugs. Due to the heterogeneity evident in the meta-analyses of some outcomes such as withdrawals and adverse events it was suggested that the drugs might have different profiles, yet potential differences were not explored further. In addition, a number of active controlled trials that have attempted to differentiate between OAB treatments have been published, but these were not evaluated by Herbison and colleagues [2]. In order to assess whether there are differences between individual antimuscarinic drugs, our methodology was distinctly different from that employed in the Cochrane review. We included active controlled trials in addition to placebo controlled trials and reviewed individual antimuscarinic drugs compared with either placebo or active controls. Our meta-analyses adopted a ‘splitting’ approach in order to assess any variation in effect between drugs.

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2. Methods

2.1. Searching

Databases and conference proceedings were searched. Medline, Embase, CCTR and Cinahl databases were searched from 1966 up to August 31st 2004. The following conference proceedings were hand-searched: American Urological Association (1983–2004), International Continence Society (ICS) (1975–2004), European Association of Urology (1990–2004), International Urogynaecological Association (IUGA) (1999–2004), International Consultation on Incontinence (ICI) (1998–2004), Societé Internationale d’Urologie (SIU) (2002) and Wound Ostomy Continence Nurses’ Society (WOCN) (2004). There were no restrictions by language of publication, and bi-lingual medical review professionals translated non-English language publications.

A rigorous process was followed to minimise the risk of overlooking a publication. A team of reviewers independently determined the eligibility of each publication by applying a set of criteria (Table 1). Two different reviewers considered every publication and discrepancies were resolved through discussion. Cited references from included trials and reviews of similar trials were also searched. Many studies were reported in more than one publication and data from all such publications were included.

Table 1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Criterion Included Excluded
Population Age: ≥18 years Age: <18 years
Race: any
Qualifying event/disease/factors: Qualifying event/disease/factors:
Idiopathic OAB/UI/DO
≤50% of patients with DO consequent upon neurogenic pathology >50% of patients with DO consequent upon neurogenic pathology
UUI SUI
MI (urge predominant incontinence) MI (stress predominant incontinence)
≤50% of patients with BOO or previous LUTD surgery >50% of patients with BOO or previous LUTD surgery
Any severity of disease at baseline
Perspective of study Prospective (Concurrent) Retrospective (Non-concurrent, historical)
Comparative Non-comparative
Type of study RCT Non-randomised CCT
(Blinded RCTs only for clinical efficacy data, open-label RCTs and blinded RCTs for safety and tolerability data) Open-label follow-up of RCT
Cohort
Observational
Case control
Case study
Cross-over trials with a wash-out period between treatments Cross-over trials without a wash-out period between treatments
Language All None
Trial length ≥2 weeks <2 weeks
Sample size Any None
Intervention/treatments: Oral monotherapy with antimuscarinics (UK licensed doses): Oral monotherapy with antimuscarinics:
Darifenacin (Enablex®) [all doses] Flavoxate (Urispas®)
Oxybutynin IR (Cystrin®, Ditropan®) [2.5–5 mg bid, tid, 5 mg qid] Fesoterodine
Oxybutynin ER (Ditropan XL®) [5 mg od, Propantheline (Pro-Banthine®)
10 mg od, 15 mg od, 20 mg od]
Oxybutynin TDS(Oxytrol®) [3.9 mg od]
Propiverine IR (Detrunorm®) [15 mg od, bid, tid, qid] All intravesical antimuscarinic formulations
Propiverine ER [all doses]
Solifenacin (Vesicare®) [all doses]
Tolterodine IR (Detrusitol®, Detrol®)
[1 mg bid, 2 mg bid]
Tolterodine ER (Detrusitol XL®, Detrol LA®) [2 mg od, 4 mg od]
Trospium (Regurin®) [20 mg bid]
Combination therapy with one of the included drugs and a non-pharmacological treatment if all the treatment arms receive the same non-pharmacological treatment. Combination therapy with antimuscarinics, and an alpha-blocker.
Combination therapy with one of the included drugs and a non-pharmacological treatment when not all the treatment arms receive the same non-pharmacological treatment.
Control intervention/treatments: Placebo or any of the included drugs Non-pharmacological treatment (bladder training, electronic stimulation, physiotherapy)
Usual care
No intervention
Included trial outcomes Any None

BOO = bladder outlet obstruction, CCT = controlled clinical trial, DO = detrusor overactivity, ER = extended release, IR = immediate release, LA = extended release, LUTD = lower urinary tract disease, MI = mixed incontinence, OAB = overactive bladder, RCT = randomised controlled trial, SUI = stress urinary incontinence, TDS = transdermal system, UI = urinary incontinence, UUI = urge urinary incontinence, XL = extended release.

2.2. Data extraction

Reviewers extracted data from eligible publications in parallel. MS Access® was used to store extracted data and identify possible analyses. A third reviewer checked the resulting extractions and the team resolved any discrepancies.

2.3. Outcome measures

The primary outcome measures of the review were ‘total withdrawals’ and ‘any adverse event’. These outcomes, together with secondary outcomes, are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Extracted outcomes

Tolerability Total withdrawals
Withdrawals due to adverse events
Withdrawals due to death

Safety Any adverse event
Any serious adverse event
Blurred vision, confusion, dizziness, palpitations, tremor, vertigo
Constipation, diarrhoea, dry mouth (any severity), dry mouth (mild), dry mouth (moderate), dry mouth (severe), dry mouth (mild/moderate), dry mouth (moderate/severe), dyspepsia, nausea, vomiting
Fatigue, headache, insomnia, somnolence, increased sweating, urinary retention, UTI, erythema, pruritus

Efficacy Change from baseline in the number of urgency episodes/24 hrs
Change from baseline in the number of incontinent episodes/24 hrs
Change from baseline in the number of pads used per day
Change from baseline in the number of daytime incontinent episodes/24 hrs
Number of patients returned to continence at trial endpoint (recording no incontinence episodes on last voiding diary entry)
Change from baseline in the number of nocturnal incontinence episodes/24 hrs
Change from baseline in the number of nocturnal awakenings related to overactive bladder/24 hrs
Number of patients achieving normal micturition frequency (≤7/8 micturitions/24 hrs) at trial endpoint
Change from baseline in the volume of urine voided per micturition (ml)
Change from baseline in the number of micturitions/24 hrs
Change from baseline in maximum cystometric capacity (ml)

QoL/PROs Generic: SF-36, SF-12
Disease Specific: Incontinence Impact Questionnaire (IIQ), KHQ, UDI
Number of patients reporting improvement in disease
VAS scores of improvement in disease

Primary outcome measures are in bold.KHQ = King's Health Questionnaire, UDI = Urogenital Distress Inventory, UTI = urinary tract infection, VAS = visual analog scale, SF-36 = Short-form 36, SF-12 = Short-form 12.

2.4. Quality assessment

We assessed the methodological quality of publications by recording the methods of generation of random allocation, concealment of allocation at randomisation, blinding of trial participants and investigators, completeness of treatment and follow-up and methods used to compensate for missing outcome data. Additionally, reviewers recorded whether the safety and efficacy analyses were carried out according to the ITT (intention to treat) or PP (per protocol) method and whether the trial was published as a full publication or an abstract.

2.5. Data analysis

Meta-analyses were carried out using MS Excel® and MetaView 5.0 to estimate the effect of each antimuscarinic. Data were combined in the most appropriate statistical model (fixed or random effect) using relative risk for dichotomous outcomes and weighted mean differences for continuous outcomes. Further detail of these approaches can be found in the Cochrane Collaboration Handbook [7]. The method for combining data was applied not only to multiple trials, but also to single studies with a valid outcome measure. This approach was adopted due to the limited number of head-to-head studies included in the review. In such instances, trials reported as inadequately powered were noted. Each trial with more than two treatment arms was treated as three separate trials (e.g. intervention 1 versus placebo, intervention 2 versus placebo, intervention 1 versus intervention 2).

Four sensitivity analyses were planned a priori to investigate the effect of disease severity, type of disease, prior response to antimuscarinic therapy and crossover trials on treatment effect.

Statistically significant differences between interventions were extracted from all trial reports regardless of whether the data were suitable for meta-analysis or not. The data that were not suitable for meta-analysis were not ignored, but were compared with the results of the meta-analyses; any differences were reviewed.

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3. Results

Trial flow: Of 11,663 references retrieved, 438 full text publications were ordered for more detailed evaluation (see Fig. 1). Fifty-six trials were included (see Appendix A) and 52 trials reported data suitable for meta-analysis.

Trial characteristics: A summary of the included trials is presented in Table 3, and Table 4. Thirty-two trials were placebo controlled and twenty-four trials were active controlled. Placebo controlled trials for darifenacin, propiverine, oxybutynin IR and TDS, solifenacin, tolterodine IR and ER and trospium were included. No trials comparing oxybutynin ER with placebo met the inclusion criteria of the review.

Table 3 Summary of included trials (placebo-controlled trials)

Trial Dosage No. of randomised patients Trial length (wks) Baseline characteristics
Included population Percentage of patients with prior therapy (% poor responders)+ Mean number of incontinence episodes/day+
Darifenacin
Haab 2004 3.75 mg, 7.5 mg, 15 mg 561 12 DO (primarily idiopathic, neurogenic) 21% (NR) 2.4
Hill 2004 (A) 7.5 mg, 15 mg, 30 mg 439 12 OAB NR NR
Steers 2004 (A) From 7.5 mg (titrated) 395 12 OAB 25% (NR) 2.3
Cardozo 2003b (A) 30 mg 72 2 OAB (UUI) NR NR

Propiverine
Dorschner 2003 45 mg 107 4 Urgency or UUI or MI NR 0.9
Halaska 1994 (A) 45 mg 93 4 Urgency or UUI NR NR

Oxybutynin IR
Burgio 2001 7.5 mg 197 8 UUI 36% (NR) 2.3
Miller 2002 (A) 7.5 mg 110 8 UUI NR NR
Szonyi 1995 (A) 5 mg 60 6 DO NR NR
Moore 1990 (X) 9 mg 53 Unclear DO (idiopathic) NR NR
Kirschner-Hermanns 1997 (A, X) 10 mg 36 3 Incontinence NR NR
Brambila 2000 (X) 15 mg 44 6 Urgency and UUI NR NR
Moisey 1980 (X) 15 mg 30 4 DO (idiopathic) NR NR
Riva 1984 (X) 15 mg 30 3 UUI or OAB (basis of diagnosis unclear) NR NR
Tapp 1990 (X) 20 mg 37 2 DO NR NR
Thuroff 1991* 15 mg 169 4 UUI NR NR

Oxybutynin TDS
Dmochowski 2002 3.9 mg 520 12 DO (primarily idiopathic, neurogenic) and UUI/MI 23% (NR) 5.5

Solifenacin
Uchida 2002 (A) 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg, 20 mg 265 4 OAB NR 3.7
Cardozo 2003 (A) 5 mg, 10 mg 907 12 OAB NR NR

Tolterodine ER
Khullar 2004 4 mg 854 8 MI 34% (72%) 3.0
Malone-Lee 2002 (A) 4 mg 308 12 DO NR NR

Tolterodine IR
Abrams 2001 (A) 4 mg 221 12 DO or BOO NR NR
Jacquetin 2001 2 mg, 4 mg 251 4 DO 71% (72%) 3.2
Jonas 1997 2 mg, 4 mg 242 4 DO NR NR
Malone-Lee 2001 2 mg, 4 mg 177 4 OAB 70% (60%) 5.1
Millard 1999 2 mg, 4 mg 316 12 DO 50% (61%) 3.9
Rentzhog 1998 2 mg, 4 mg 81 2 DO 64% (NR) 4.1

Trospium
Alloussi 1998 40 mg 309 3 DO NR NR
Cardozo 2000 40 mg 208 3 DO NR NR
Chaliha 1998 (A) 40 mg 76 3 DO NR NR
Rudy 2004 (A) 40 mg 658 12 OAB NR 3.9
Zinner 2004 40 mg 523 12 OAB (UUI) 54% (NR) 4.3

(A) = trial published in abstract form only, (X) = trial was of cross-over design, P = placebo arm also present in the trial, OBJECT = Overactive Bladder: Judging Effective Control and Treatment, OPERA = Overactive Bladder: Performance of Extended Release Agents, ER = extended release, IR = immediate release, TDS = transdermal system, sol = solifenacin, tol = tolterodine, DO = detrusor overactivity, LUT = lower urinary tract, MI = mixed incontinence, OAB = overactive bladder, BOO = bladder outlet obstruction, UUI = urge urinary incontinence, NR = not reported.

* This trial had a second active treatment arm, propantheline 45 mg, not included in this review.

+ The trial arm with the highest baseline value is stated.

Table 4 Summary of included trials (active controlled trials)

Trial Dosage No. of randomised patients Trial length (wks) Baseline characteristics
Included population Percentage of patients with prior therapy (% poor responders)+ Mean number of incontinence episodes/day+
Oxybutynin ER, Oxybutynin IR
Anderson 1999 From 5 mg, from 5 mg (titrated) 105 2 UUI or MI 100% (0%) 4.2
Barkin 2004 From 15 mg, from 15 mg (titrated) 125 6 UUI NR 3.5
Birns 2000 10 mg, 10 mg 130 4 DO (predominantly idiopathic) 100% (0%) NR
Versi 2000 From 5 mg, from 5 mg (titrated) 226 Titration period + 1 wk UUI 100% (0%) 3.2

Oxybutynin ER, Tolterodine ER
OPERA 10 mg, 4 mg 790 12 OAB 48% (NR) 6.2

Oxybutynin ER, Tolterodine IR
Xia 2001 5 mg, 2 mg 210 6 OAB NR 3.0
OBJECT 10 mg, 4 mg 378 12 OAB 41% (NR) 4.1

Oxybutynin IR, Oxybutynin TDS
Davila 2001 From 5 mg, from 2.6 mg 2/week (titrated) 76 4 UUI 100% (0%) 3.4
Neimark 2002 (A) Doses not reported (titrated) 68 6 OAB (basis of diagnosis unclear) NR NR

Oxybutynin IR, Trospium
Halaska 2003 10 mg, 40 mg 358 52 DO or UUI (primarily idiopathic, neurogenic) or MI 51% (NR) 2.1

Oxybutynin IR, Tolterodine ER, P
Homma 2003 9 mg, 4 mg 608 12 OAB 25% (53%) 3.1

Oxybutynin IR, Tolterodine IR
Lee 2002 10 mg, 4 mg 228 8 OAB 32% (47%) 2.6
Leung 2002 10 mg, 4 mg 106 10 DO NR NR
Malone-Lee 2001b 10 mg, 4 mg 379 10 OAB 32% (72%) 2.9

Oxybutynin IR, Tolterodine IR, P
Abrams 1998 15 mg, 4 mg 293 12 DO (30% post LUT surgery) 60% 3.3
Drutz 1999 15 mg, 4 mg 277 12 DO (UUI) 55% (61%) 3.7

Oxybutynin TDS, Tolterodine ER, P
Dmochowski 2003 3.9 mg, 4 mg 361 12 OAB and UUI/MI 100% (0%) 5.4

Propiverine IR, Oxybutynin IR, P
Madersbacher 1999 45 mg, 10 mg 366 4 Urgency or UUI 33% (NR) NR

Propiverine IR, Propiverine ER, P
Jünemann 2004 (A) 30 mg, 30 mg 988 4.6 OAB (basis of diagnosis unclear) NR 3.4

Propiverine IR, Tolterodine IR
Jünemann 2003 (A) 30 mg, 4 mg 202 4 DO (idiopathic) NR NR

Solifenacin, Tolterodine IR, P
Chapple 2004 (sol) 2.5 mg, 5 mg, 10 mg, 20 mg, (tol) 4 mg 225 4 DO (idiopathic) NR 1.7
Chapple 2004b (sol) 5 mg, 10 mg, (tol) 4 mg 1081 12 OAB 40% (NR) 2.6

Tolterodine ER, Tolterodine IR, P
Van Kerrebroeck 2001 4 mg, 4 mg 1529 12 OAB 54% (38%) 3.3

Trospium, Tolterodine IR, P
Jünemann 2000 (A) 40 mg, 4 mg 234 3 DO NR NR

(A) = trial published in abstract form only, (X) = trial was of cross-over design, P = placebo arm also present in the trial, OBJECT = Overactive Bladder: Judging Effective Control and Treatment, OPERA = Overactive Bladder: Performance of Extended Release Agents, ER = extended release, IR = immediate release, TDS = transdermal system, sol = solifenacin, tol = tolterodine, DO = detrusor overactivity, LUT = lower urinary tract, MI = mixed incontinence, OAB = overactive bladder, BOO = bladder outlet obstruction, UUI = urge urinary incontinence, NR = not reported.

+ The trial arm with the highest baseline value is stated.

The large majority of trials were parallel in design, whereas, only six trials were crossover in design. Included trials ranged from two weeks to 18 months with the majority of trials being 4 or 12 weeks long. Trials included a minimum of 30 patients and a maximum of 1529 patients. Two trials included over 1000 patients. The majority of trials included patients with a mean age between 50 and 65 years (n = 50). Four trials included older patients with a mean age greater than 65 years [8], [9], [10], and [11]. Two trials included patients with a mean age less than 50 years [12], and [13]. Seventeen trials were published in abstract format only and 39 trials were published as full publications.

All trials were reported to be double blind apart from two trials [11], and [14]. Twenty-four trials used modified ITT analyses for efficacy data; 24 trials used the per-protocol method and eight trials did not describe the efficacy analysis methodology clearly. The majority of trials (n = 32) included all randomised patients for the analysis of safety data. Sixteen trials used the PP method for safety analyses and eight trials did not report the methodology clearly.

3.1. Tolerability
3.1.1. Total withdrawals (any cause)

All evaluated antimuscarinic formulations (darifenacin, propiverine IR and ER, solifenacin, tolterodine IR and ER, trospium) apart from oxybutynin IR were found to be well tolerated compared with placebo (Fig. 2, Table 5). Compared with patients receiving placebo, patients treated with oxybutynin IR (8.8–15 mg/day) have a 40% greater risk of withdrawing from treatment. Unexpectedly, there was a 29% lower incidence of total withdrawals in patients treated with tolterodine ER than in patients receiving placebo; this finding just reached statistical significance.

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Fig. 2 Forest plot of relative risk of all cause withdrawals.

Table 5 Tolerability of antimuscarinics compared to placebo: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are RR (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis, oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, dar = darifenacin, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, (t 7.5) = titrated dose from 7.5 mg/day.#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

Statistically significant differences in active comparisons favoured oxybutynin ER, tolterodine IR and tolterodine ER compared with oxybutynin IR. For active comparisons of all other antimuscarinics, no other significant differences in total withdrawal rates were found (Table 6).

Table 6 Tolerability of antimuscarinics compared to active control: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are RR (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis, oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t) = titrated, (t 5) = titrated from 5 mg/day, (t 15) = titrated from 15 mg/day.#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

3.1.2. Withdrawals due to adverse events and death

The only drugs associated with excess withdrawals due to adverse events were oxybutynin IR and oxybutynin TDS (see Table 5, and Table 6). Tolterodine IR was found to cause fewer withdrawals due to adverse events than oxybutynin IR and tolterodine ER caused fewer than both oxybutynin IR and oxybutynin TDS (Table 6). Although the finding just failed to reach statistical significance, propiverine IR 30 mg/day was associated with more than seven times the risk of withdrawal due to adverse events compared with placebo. No drug was associated with a significantly increased risk of death.

3.2. Safety

This review found the antimuscarinics as a class to be safe. Dry mouth was the most commonly reported adverse event and no drug was associated with an increase in any serious adverse event. There were differences between the antimuscarinics in the rate and type of adverse event.

3.2.1. Any adverse event

Each antimuscarinic was found to have a slightly different safety profile (Table 7, and Table 8). Darifenacin (7.5 mg/day, 15 mg/day), and oxybutynin IR (8.8–15 mg/day) were associated with a greater incidence of any adverse event than placebo (Fig. 3). Propiverine IR 30 mg/day was associated with a greater incidence of any adverse event than placebo, but this difference was not found for propiverine IR at the higher dose of 45 mg/day. We did not find this difference for oxybutynin TDS, solifenacin, tolterodine IR, tolterodine ER and trospium.

Table 7 Adverse events of antimuscarinics compared with placebo: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are relative risk ratios (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis. * = trial definition, AE = any adverse event, ASAE = any serious adverse event, UTI = urinary tract infection, oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, dar = darifenacin, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t 7.5) = titrated dose from 7.5 mg/day. No data suitable for meta-analysis for any intervention for tremor.#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

Table 8 Adverse events of antimuscarinics compared to active control: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are relative risk ratios (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis. * = trial definition, AE = any adverse event, ASAE = any serious adverse event, UTI = urinary tract infection, oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t) = titrated dose, (t 5) = titrated from 5 mg/day, (t 15) = titrated from 15 mg/day. No data suitable for meta-analysis for confusion, pruritus, tremor, vertigo.#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

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Fig. 3 Forest plot of relative risk of any adverse event.

Oxybutynin was associated with an excess of any adverse event compared with two other antimuscarinic formulations; an excess of any adverse event was found for oxybutynin ER (compared with tolterodine IR) and oxybutynin IR (compared with tolterodine IR and trospium) (Table 8).

3.2.2. Dry mouth

The most commonly reported adverse event for all the antimuscarinics was dry mouth. The majority of antimuscarinic formulations were found to cause a significant increase in the incidence of dry mouth compared with placebo (Table 9). Three antimuscarinic formulations (Oxybutynin TDS, oxybutynin IR 5–7,5 mg/day, propiverine IR 45 mg/day) were not associated with an increase in dry mouth compared with placebo, although the numbers of patients eligible for the analyses of the last two of these drugs were low (57 and 98 respectively). Oxybutynin IR was found to be associated with a greater incidence of dry mouth compared with oxybutynin ER, oxybutynin TDS, propiverine IR, tolterodine ER, tolterodine IR and trospium (Table 10).

Table 9 Dry mouth severity of antimuscarinics compared with placebo: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are relative risk ratios (95% CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis. oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, dar = darifenacin, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t 7.5) = titrated from 7.5 mg/day.#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

Table 10 Dry mouth severity of antimuscarinics compared to active control: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are relative risk ratios (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis. oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t) = titrated dose, (t 5) = titrated from 5 mg/day, (t 15) = titrated from 15 mg/day.#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

Data on dry mouth severity was reported in 19 trials, although this data was limited to trials of oxybutynin ER, oxybutynin IR, tolterodine ER, tolterodine IR and propiverine IR (Table 9, and Table 10). Not only was oxybutynin IR found to be associated with a higher incidence of dry mouth (any severity) than other treatments, but it was also found to cause more moderate/severe and severe dry mouth. Oxybutynin IR was associated with more severe dry mouth than three of the four other eligible active comparators: propiverine IR (twice the incidence), tolterodine IR (four times the incidence) and tolterodine ER (twenty times the incidence).

The data not suitable for meta-analysis support these results with the exception of one trial reporting conflicting data [15]. Leung reported comparable rates of dry mouth (any severity) in patients treated with tolterodine IR 4 mg/day and oxybutynin IR 10 mg/day, whereas we found a significantly lower incidence in favour of tolterodine IR from the meta-analysis [15].

3.2.3. Other adverse events

Other adverse events noted in placebo controlled trials were (Table 7): blurred vision (with oxybutynin IR, propiverine IR and solifenacin); constipation (with darifenacin, solifenacin and trospium); dyspepsia (with darifenacin and oxybutynin IR); erythema and pruritus (with oxybutynin TDS); and urinary retention (with oxybutynin IR).

A limited range of other adverse events was noted in active comparator trials: Solifenacin 10 mg/day was associated with more blurred vision than tolterodine IR 4 mg/day; the risk of constipation was reduced by using oxybutynin TDS in preference to oxybutynin IR, and tolterodine IR in preference to solifenacin; the incidence of dyspepsia was lower if tolterodine IR was used instead of oxybutynin IR; nausea was less in patients treated with oxybutynin ER compared with oxybutynin IR; and the risk of vomiting was less for oxybutynin ER compared with tolterodine ER.

These results were generally reflective of the data not suitable for meta-analysis.

3.3. Efficacy
3.3.1. Placebo controlled trials (Table 11)

All antimuscarinics apart from propiverine were found to be efficacious in one or more meta-analyses compared with placebo (Table 11). Some evidence of efficacy was available for propiverine, but was not reported in a format suitable for meta-analysis.

Table 11 Efficacy of antimuscarinics compared to placebo: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are RR or WMD (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis. CUE = Mean change in urgency episodes per 24 hours, CIE = mean change in incontinent episodes per 24 hours, CM = mean change in micturitions per 24 hours, RC = the number of patients returned to continence, ANMF = the number of patients achieving normal micturition frequency, CVV = mean change in volume voided per micturition, oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, dar = darifenacin, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t 7.5) = titrated dose from 7.5mg/day.*WMD (weighted mean difference).**RR (relative risk ratio).#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

Urgency episodes were significantly reduced by over one episode per day in patients receiving solifenacin 5 mg/day, solifenacin 10 mg/day and tolterodine ER 4 mg/day compared with patients receiving placebo. Incontinence episodes were reduced by half an episode or more per day in patients receiving all analysed doses of oxybutynin (IR or TDS), solifenacin and tolterodine (IR or ER) compared with those on placebo. The frequency of micturition was reduced in patients receiving all analysed doses of solifenacin, tolterodine (IR or ER) and oxybutynin TDS compared with placebo. There was a greater number of patients returned to continence on oxybutynin IR 5–7.5 mg/day, oxybutynin TDS, tolterodine ER 4 mg/day and trospium compared with placebo. Darifenacin titrated from 7.5 mg/day helped more patients achieve normal micturition frequency compared with placebo. The volume voided per micturition was increased by an additional 13 to 40 ml by antimuscarinics (oxybutynin IR 8.8–15 mg/day, oxybutynin TDS 3.9 mg/day, solifenacin 5 mg/day, 10 mg/day, tolterodine IR 2 mg/day, 4 mg/day, tolterodine ER 4 mg/day) compared with placebo.

The following data was not suitable for meta-analysis, but provides further evidence of the efficacy of antimuscarinic formulations. Darifenacin was found to achieve greater reductions in urgency episodes, incontinence episodes and micturition frequency compared with placebo [16], [17], and [18].

Oxybutynin IR 8.8–15 mg/day was found to reduce micturition frequency compared with placebo in three trials [19], [20], and [21]. In addition, Burgio 2001 found a greater reduction in daily incontinence episodes in patients treated with oxybutynin IR 7.5 mg/day than in patients receiving placebo.

Propiverine IR 45 mg/day was found to reduce incontinence episodes [8]. Propiverine IR and ER (30 mg/day) were also found to reduce micturition frequency compared with placebo [22].

Trospium 40 mg/day was found to reduce daily incontinence and urgency episodes compared with placebo [23], and [24]. Three trials also reported significantly greater reductions in micturition frequency in patients receiving trospium 40 mg/day compared with placebo [23], [24], and [25].

3.3.2. Active controlled trials (Table 12)

Three antimuscarinic formulations (solifenacin, oxybutynin ER, oxybutynin IR) were found to have superior efficacy in direct comparison trials (Table 12). Patients receiving solifenacin 5 or 10 mg/day experienced up to one fewer urgency episode per day than those receiving tolterodine IR 4 mg/day. Patients receiving solifenacin 10 mg/day also experienced less frequent micturition than those receiving tolterodine IR 4 mg/day. Patients receiving oxybutynin ER 10 mg/day experience approximately two fewer incontinence episodes per week than patients receiving tolterodine ER 4 mg/day. A greater number of patients treated with oxybutynin ER 10 mg/day were returned to continence than patients receiving tolterodine ER 4 mg/day. The increase in volume voided was greater in patients treated with oxybutynin IR 15 mg/day, solifenacin 5 mg/day and 10 mg/day than in patients receiving tolterodine IR 4 mg/day.

Table 12 Efficacy of antimuscarinics compared to active control: results from meta-analyses

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Data presented are RR or WMD (95% CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis. CUE = mean change in urgency episodes per 24 hours, CIE = mean change in incontinent episodes per 24 hours, CM = mean change in micturitions per 24 hours, RC = the number of patients returned to continence, ANMF = the number of patients achieving normal micturition frequency, CVV = mean change in volume voided per micturition, oxy = oxybutynin, tol = tolterodine, sol = solifenacin, pro = propiverine, tro = trospium, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, (t) = titrated dose, (t 5) = titrated from 5 mg/day, (t 15) = titrated from 15 mg/day.*WMD (weighted mean difference).**RR (relative risk ratio).#Data included from a single trial.##Data included from a single trial reported to be powered to show a significant difference between interventions.

The OBJECT trial reported endpoint efficacy data that could not be incorporated in the meta-analysis [26]. This trial found a significantly greater reduction in daily incontinence episodes and micturition frequency in patients treated with oxybutynin ER 10 mg/day than in patients receiving tolterodine IR 4 mg/day.

3.4. Quality of life

Of 56 trials included in the review, 25 reported QoL findings. The most commonly employed instruments were the Incontinence Impact Questionnaire (IIQ), King's Health Questionnaire (KHQ), Short-form 36 (SF-36), Gaudenz Appraisal Questionnaire and Urogenital Distress Inventory (UDI). The Contilife questionnaire and the Basle Subjective Well-Being Survey were also used infrequently.

Statistically significant differences in QoL compared to placebo were reported for tolterodine IR and ER, trospium, solifenacin, propiverine IR and oxybutynin TDS. These data were limited by inconsistency in the instruments used, a small number of assessed patients and few reported domains. A pooled analysis of three RCTs presented QoL data for darifenacin, but this paper did not meet the inclusion criteria of the review. Included trials reported significant differences between antimuscarinics and placebo for global and disease-specific domains. The data indicate that antimuscarinics improve several areas of QoL ranging from physical activities, sleep and energy to emotions and relationships (Table 13).

Table 13 Summary of the effects of antimuscarinics on QoL (all significant differences between antimuscarinics and placebo reported in included trials)

Global QoL domains Significant impact reported for:
Overall QoL
Contilife: Overall QoL Solifenacin
IIQ: Overall QoL Oxybutynin TDS, Tolterodine ER, Trospium

Daily activities
Contilife: Daily activities Solifenacin, Tolterodine IR

Physical limitations
KHQ: Physical limitations Tolterodine IR, ER

Travel
IIQ: Travel Oxybutynin TDS, Tolterodine ER, Trospium

Sleep and energy
KHQ: Sleep and energy Tolterodine IR, ER
Basle: Tired-fresh Propiverine IR

Self-image
Contilife: Self image Solifenacin

Emotions
Contilife: Emotional consequences Solifenacin
KHQ: Emotional problems Tolterodine IR, ER
IIQ: Feelings Trospium

Relationships
IIQ: Relationships Trospium
KHQ: Role limitations Tolterodine IR, ER
KHQ: Personal relationships Tolterodine ER

Sexuality
Contilife: Sexuality Solifenacin

Social limitations
KHQ: Social limitations Tolterodine ER
Basle: Taciturn-talkative Propiverine IR
Basle: Retiring-gregarious Propiverine IR

Coping
KHQ: Severity (Coping) Tolterodine IR, ER
Disease specific domains Significant impact reported for:
Symptom severity
KHQ: Symptom severity Tolterodine IR, ER
UDI: Irritative symptoms Oxybutynin TDS, Tolterodine ER

Incontinence
KHQ: Incontinence impact Tolterodine IR, ER
Gaudenz: Stress score Propiverine IR

Urgency
Gaudenz: Urge score Propiverine IR

QoL = quality of life, Contilife = Quality of Life Assessment Questionnaire Concerning Urinary Incontinence, IIQ = Incontinence Impact Questionnaire, KHQ = King's Health Questionnaire, Basle = Basle Subjective Well-Being Survey, Gaudenz = Gaudenz Appraisal Questionnaire, UDI = Urinary Distress Inventory, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system.

Meta-analysis of QoL data demonstrated that patients receiving antimuscarinics have greater improvements in QoL than patients on placebo (Table 14). Improvements were noted for oxybutynin TDS, trospium, tolterodine IR, and tolterodine ER. Limited analyses of direct comparisons found no significant differences between interventions.

Table 14 Quality of Life of antimuscarinics compared with placebo: results from all possible meta-analyses from included trials

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Data presented are weighted mean differences (95%CI) compared with placebo where n = the number of patients included in the analysis. Statistically significant differences are presented in boxes. Blank cells indicate comparisons for which no data was suitable for meta-analysis, Oxy = oxybutynin, Tol = tolterodine, Tro = trospium, IR = immediate release, ER = extended release, TDS = transdermal system, GAD = Global assessment of disease, IIQ (Incontinence Impact Questionnaire) domains: OQoL = Overall QoL, T = Travel, PA = Physical Activities, F = Feelings, R = Relationships, KHQ (King's Health Questionnaire) domains: GH = General Health, II = Incontinence Impact, RL = Role Limitations, PL = Physical Limitations, SL = Social Limitations, PR = Personal Relationships, EP = Emotional Problems, SE = Sleep and Energy, S (C) = Severity (Coping), SS = Symptom Severity, SF-36 (Short-form 36) domains: PCS = Physical Component Summary, MCS = Mental Component Summary, UDI (Urinary Distress Inventory) domains: IS = Irritative Symptoms.No QoL data for the following interventions (compared with placebo) were suitable for meta-analysis: darifenacin, oxybutynin IR, propiverine IR, ER, solifenacin, tolterodine IR 2 mg/day.

These results are described in detail in a separate publication focusing on the effects of antimuscarinic treatments on QoL [42].

3.5. Sensitivity analyses

The sensitivity analyses altered few results, indicating that the meta-analyses were robust to pertinent study and patient characteristics. A limited number of tolerability and safety results changed after removing trials including patients with mild or severe incontinence at baseline and varying disease type. These results were not considered to be clinically significant and have not been reported here.

The only sensitivity analysis that changed efficacy outcome results was for oxybutynin ER and oxybutynin TDS and was related to the inclusion of patients with prior response to treatment. The results of the meta-analyses for oxybutynin ER and oxybutynin TDS should be treated with caution when considering treatment naïve patients or prior treatment failures. Three out of four oxybutynin ER trials included 100% prior responders to antimuscarinic treatment [27], [28], and [29]. In the Birns 2000 trial, only patients with prior response in efficacy and proven tolerability to treatment with oxybutynin IR were included. Only one included trial provided data for the efficacy, safety and tolerability of oxybutynin ER (titrated from 15 mg/day) in treatment naïve patients [30]. One of two trials comparing oxybutynin TDS with placebo also included 100% prior responders to antimuscarinic treatment [31]. When this trial was removed from the meta-analyses, reductions in daily incontinence episodes and micturition frequency in patients receiving oxybutynin TDS compared with patients on placebo were no longer found to be significantly in favour of active treatment. If the Dmochowski 2003 trial is excluded from the meta-analyses, oxybutynin TDS only results in significantly greater efficacy for one outcome compared with placebo (return to continence) and this meta-analysis only includes data from a single trial [32].

Removing trials including patients with mild or severe incontinence at baseline and varying disease type had no effect on the efficacy results, neither did removing cross-over trials.

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4. Discussion

This systematic review suggests that many antimuscarinics are well tolerated and have a predictable adverse event profile with proven efficacy in the treatment of OAB and DO. There appear to be differences in the profile of the individual antimuscarinic treatments.

The ‘splitting’ approach (assessing any variation in effect between drugs) that has been adopted has resulted in very different findings from the ‘lumping’ approach (pooling all drugs together) adopted in the earlier review by Herbison [2]. The results reported here suggest there is quantifiable benefit conferred by antimuscarinics, including some evidence that the drugs can return patients to continence. The results also suggest that antimuscarinics confer a significant quality of life benefit to patients. In contrast, Herbison concluded that ‘the benefits [of the drugs] are of limited clinical significance’. The findings reviewed here suggest that there are differences between the drugs, whereas the sensitivity analysis conducted by Herbison, ‘did not show any differences in the results for type of drug’. The larger numbers of trials and the meta-analyses of active comparator trials included in this review may partially explain the differences in the findings between these two reviews.

A number of the concerns expressed by Herbison are valid, such as the variable quality of trial reporting, inappropriate choice of comparator (especially in older trials), and inappropriate outcome measure; these have been reported in many systematic reviews. Herbison pointed out the lack of QoL evidence and although this review has identified further QoL data, this data is still limited. There is also a lack of comparative and adjunctive trials of bladder retraining.

Tolerability: We found evidence that the antimuscarinics have different tolerability profiles, which may well be of clinical significance. Tolterodine ER was found to have the most favourable tolerability profile of all the antimuscarinics. Tolterodine ER was the only antimuscarinic found to be associated with significantly fewer all-cause withdrawals compared with placebo. All other antimuscarinics apart from oxybutynin IR were found to occupy the middle ground, causing similar all-cause withdrawals as placebo. However, it is promising to note that there were non-significant results with respect to darifenacin (7.5 mg/day) and solifenacin (5 mg/day, 10 mg/day) suggesting that these drugs may also cause fewer all-cause withdrawals than placebo. Oxybutynin IR was the least well tolerated antimuscarinic and, although data was limited for oxybutynin TDS, the transdermal delivery system was associated with over six times the rate of withdrawals due to adverse events compared with tolterodine ER.

Adverse events: The adverse event profiles of the antimuscarinics were safe and predictable; there was some evidence of differences between the profiles of drugs.

Based on significant results of meta-analyses compared with placebo, the drugs with the most favourable profile were oxybutynin IR 5–7.5 mg/day and tolterodine (IR, ER). The finding for oxybutynin IR 5–7.5 mg/day should be treated with caution as it was based on data from a single study of 57 patients.

There were only two instances where tolterodine ER 4 mg/day was associated with excess adverse events; a greater incidence of the well recognised antimuscarinic adverse event dry mouth compared with placebo; and vomiting compared with oxybutynin ER in the OPERA trial. Given that vomiting was not reported in placebo controlled trials of tolterodine ER and the rates of nausea reported in these trials were similar to placebo, we were unable to explain the findings for vomiting. Tolterodine IR and ER have comparable profiles, although tolterodine ER was associated with less dry mouth than the IR formulation.

Although oxybutynin ER was associated with more dry mouth than tolterodine ER, it will be worth investigating this further in the future. In a single meta-analysis oxybutynin ER was associated with lower rates of dry mouth compared with the IR formulation.

Darifenacin, oxybutynin IR at doses above 7.5 mg/day, oxybutynin TDS, propiverine (30 mg/day IR, ER), solifenacin (5 mg/day, 10 mg/day) and trospium (40 mg/day) were all significantly associated with multiple adverse events. Oxybutynin TDS, based on limited data, appears to have overcome the dry mouth problem associated with oxybutynin IR, but at the expense of application site reaction and an increase in withdrawals due to adverse events (found in a comparison with tolterodine ER only).

Oxybutynin IR was consistently associated with high rates of adverse events. In thirteen out of the twenty significant differences in adverse event rates found in active comparator analyses, oxybutynin IR was found to cause higher rates of adverse events than other antimuscarinic formulations. Oxybutynin IR was also associated with a notably high rate of moderate and severe dry mouth, and was the only drug found to increase rates of urinary retention.

Efficacy: We found clear evidence that every antimuscarinic was effective based on one or more of the outcome measures we included in the review. This publication focuses on the efficacy of antimuscarinics measured using clinical outcomes. The results of the analysis of QoL data are described in detail in a separate publication and the efficacy results presented in this publication should therefore be considered in the context of the effects of antimuscarinics on QoL [42].

We could not conclude that the drugs had similar effects, however: solifenacin caused significantly greater reductions in urgency episodes and micturition frequency compared with tolterodine IR; and oxybutynin ER caused greater reductions in incontinence episodes and a larger number of patients returned to continence compared with tolterodine ER.

4.1. Limitations of the evidence

As this review only included randomised controlled trials, the results may not be fully representative of clinical practice. We identified seven potential caveats to our findings: choice of outcome measure, trial length; limited active comparison trials, patient population; the placebo effect; treatment naïve patients; and economic consequences.

4.1.1. Choice of outcome measure

A fundamental aim of treatment for OAB is to achieve continence, normal micturition frequency and to improve QoL [33]. These factors are highly important and have not received enough attention in the past. Only 13 trials reported the number of patients returned to continence at trial endpoint; just two trials reported the number of patients achieving normal micturition frequency [18], and [34] and approximately half the trials (n = 25) reported QoL findings. All of these infrequently reported outcomes have great relevance to the patient.

4.1.2. Trial length

The included data is limited in terms of generalisability to clinical practice due to the short length of included trials in contrast with the chronic treatment required by most patients with OAB. The majority of included trials were less than 12 weeks long. Eighteen trials were of 12 weeks duration. Despite the paucity of long-term randomised controlled trials of antimuscarinics, evidence from a single long-term randomised controlled trial, and several long-term non-randomised trials, support the long-term use of antimuscarinics [14], [35], [36], [37], and [38].

Only one included trial clearly reported a relatively long-term (52-week) follow-up [14]. Halaska 2003 concluded that the incidence of side effects was no greater than the incidence reported in short-term trials. This indicates that the adverse event profile of the antimuscarinics reported in short-term trials is probably representative of longer-term treatment.

A limited number of longer-term, non-randomised studies evaluating the efficacy and tolerability of antimuscarinics are available although they failed to meet the inclusion criteria for this systematic review. We have identified four such studies [35], [36], [37], and [38]. Data from these studies support the findings of this review concerning the differing tolerability profiles of oxybutynin and tolterodine and support the long-term use of antimuscarinics.

4.1.3. Active controlled trials

A concern is the limited number of studies that have been conducted with an active comparator. Approximately half the trials included more than one antimuscarinic treatment arm enabling the direct comparison of interventions. However, even active comparator trials published in the last two years failed to include the newer ER formulations of tolterodine and oxybutynin and oxybutynin TDS. Only one trial compared oxybutynin ER and tolterodine ER [39] and only one trial compared oxybutynin TDS and oxybutynin ER [32].

Due to the limited number of active controlled trials, analyses included data from single trials and in certain cases these trials did not report powering to detect a difference between the interventions.

4.1.4. Restricted population

We have only included trials of patients within a narrow disease specification. Trials had to include greater than 50% of patients with idiopathic OAB/DO or urge predominant mixed incontinence. The results of this review are therefore not generalisable to patients with DO consequent upon neurogenic pathology or patients with stress predominant mixed incontinence.

Although OAB symptoms are particularly prevalent in the older population [40], few of the included trials researched the effects of antimuscarinic treatment in older patients. Four trials included patients with a mean age greater than 65 years, but only two of these included patients with a mean age greater than 70 years [10], and [11]. An open-label observational study including 2,250 OAB patients treated with tolterodine IR found that advancing age was associated with decreased responsiveness to treatment [41]. These data indicate that the efficacy of antimuscarinics may vary according to the patient's age. The results of this review may therefore not be generalisable to older patients suffering from OAB. It is very clear that since many of the patients treated with antimuscarinics are elderly this should be the focus of future studies, in particular investigating the importance of this class of drugs on cognitive dysfunction [40].

This problem is not unique to this review as all controlled studies using strict inclusion and exclusion criteria provide high internal but low external validity. Extrapolation of results such as these to clinical practice must therefore be undertaken with appropriate caution.

4.1.5. The placebo effect

Herbison documented the substantial placebo effect experienced by patients with OAB. The placebo rates reported by included trials in this review confirm this effect within the OAB patient population. The results of this review do suggest that there are differences between antimuscarinic treatments and placebo if one looks specifically at individual components of tolerability, safety, efficacy and QoL outcomes, despite the magnitude of the placebo effect. Further research is required to help to explain the variation in placebo rates between trials evaluating antimuscarinic treatments for OAB.

4.1.6. Treatment naïve patients

The only sensitivity analysis conducted that generated a consequential finding was for prior responders to treatment found for oxybutynin ER and oxybutynin TDS. The efficacy of both products was less certain for treatment naïve patients and prior treatment failures.

4.1.7. Economic consequences

Evidence relating to cost effectiveness of antimuscarinics needs to be considered in the future, particularly as this is becoming an increasingly important criteria to healthcare providers. We did not include cost-effectiveness studies of the antimuscarinics in our review, although the economic consequences of drug choice should be an important criterion to decision makers.

4.2. Implications for practice

It is clear from the variation in withdrawal, adverse event and efficacy rates between antimuscarinics, that differences could be anticipated in longer-term adherence between the drugs.

4.3. Implications for research

There are four areas that we consider would benefit from additional research: new and recently licensed products should be assessed in head to head trials with the most relevant established interventions (including adjunctive bladder retraining or biofeedback); study design should include outcome measures that are more meaningful to patients such as return to continence, achievement of normal micturition frequency and quality of life; variation in persistence rates between the drugs needs to be evaluated; and more studies of the effects of antimuscarinics are required in older patients.

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Appendix A. References of included trials

  • [1]Abrams P, Freeman R, Anderstrom C, Mattiasson A. Tolterodine, a new antimuscarinic agent: as effective but better tolerated than oxybutynin in patients with an overactive bladder. Br J Urol 1998;81(6):801–10.

  • [2]Abrams P, Kaplan S, Millard K. Tolterodine treatment is safe in men with Bladder Outlet Obstruction (BOO) and symptomatic detrusor overactivity (DO). In: Proceedings of the International Continence Society (ICS), 31st Annual Meeting, Seoul, Korea; 2001. p. 107.

  • [3]Alloussi S, Laval KU, Eckert R, Ballering-Bruhl B, Grosse-Freese M, Bulitta M, et al. Trospium chloride (Spasmo-lyt registered) in patients with motor urge syndrome (detrusor instability): a double-blind, randomised, multicentre, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Res 1998;1:439–51.

  • [4]Anderson RU, Mobley D, Blank B, Saltzstein D, Susset J, Brown JS. Once daily controlled versus immediate release oxybutynin chloride for urge urinary incontinence. OROS Oxybutynin Study Group. J Urol 1999;161(6):1809–12.

  • [5]Appel RA, Sand P, Dmochowski R, Anderson R, Zinner N, Lama D, et al. Prospective randomized controlled trial of extended-release oxybutynin chloride and tolterodine tartrate in the treatment of overactive bladder: results of the OBJECT study. Mayo Clin Proc 2001;76(4):358–63.

  • [6]Barkin J, Corcos J, Radomski S, Jammal M, Miceli PC, Reiz JL, et al. A randomised, double-blind, parallel-group comparison of controlled and immediate-release oxybutynin chloride in urge urinary incontinence. Clin Ther 2004;26(7):1026–36.

  • [7]Birns J, Lukkari E, Malone-Lee JG. A randomized controlled trial comparing the efficacy of controlled-release oxybutynin tablets (10 mg once daily) with conventional oxybutynin tablets (5 mg twice daily) in patients whose symptoms were stabilized on 5 mg twice daily of oxybutynin. BJU Int 2000;85(7):793–8.

  • [8]Brambila EAS, Avila RGQ, Monterrubio JLL, Aranda JM. Evaluation of the effectiveness and tolerance of oxybutynin in the treatment of unstable bladder in women (translated from Spanish). Ginecol Obstet Mex 2000;68:174–81.

  • [9]Burgio KL, Locher JL, Roth DL, Goode PS. Psychological improvements associated with behavioural and drug treatment of urge incontinence in older women. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2001;56(1):46–51.

  • [10]Cardozo L, Chapple CR, Toozs-Hobson P, Grosse-Freese M, Bulitta M, Lehmacher W, et al. Efficacy of trospium chloride in patients with detrusor instability: a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, multicentre clinical trial. BJU Int 2000;85(6):659–64.

  • [11]Cardozo L. YM905 in symptomatic overactive bladder: results of a phase 3a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. J Urol 2003;169(4):350.

  • [12]Cardozo L, Prescott K, Serdarevic D, Skillern L. Can medication prolong warning time? In: Proceedings of the International Continence Society (ICS), 33rd Annual Meeting, Florence, Italy; 2003b. p. 74.

  • [13]Chaliha C, Halaska M, Stanton SL. Trospium chloride for the treatment of detrusor instability: a placebo-controlled dose-finding study. BJOG 1998;105(Suppl 17).

  • [14]Chapple CR, Arano P, Bosch JL, De Ridder D, Kramer AE, Ridder AM. Solifenacin appears effective and well tolerated in patients with symptomatic idiopathic detrusor overactivity in a placebo- and tolterodine-controlled phase 2 dose-finding study. BJU Int 2004;93(1):71–7.

  • [15]Chapple CR, Rechberger T, Al Shukri S, Meffan P, Everaert K, Huang M, et al. Randomized, double-blind placebo-and tolterodine-controlled trial of the once-daily antimuscarinic agent solifenacin in patients with symptomatic overactive bladder. BJU Int 2004b;(3):303–10.

  • [16]Davila GW, Daugherty CA, Sanders SW. Transdermal Oxybutynin Study Group. A short-term, multicenter, randomized double-blind dose titration study of the efficacy and anticholinergic side effects of transdermal compared to immediate release oral oxybutynin treatment of patients with urge urinary incontinence. J Urol 2001;166(1):140–5.

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Footnotes

a Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Urology Research, J Floor Office, Glossop Road, Sheffield, S102JF, UK

b Imperial College, St Mary's Hospital, London, W2 1PG, UK

c Heron Evidence Development Ltd, UK

d Pfizer Ltd, UK

* Corresponding author. Tel. +44 114 2712559; Fax: +44 114 2798318.

Article information

PII: S0302-2838(05)00131-4
DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2005.02.024
© 2005 Elsevier B.V.. All rights reserved.

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